8. Phonetics as a science.

Ph. Is not a separate, independent science. Ph. Is an independent brahch of linguistic like lexecology, grammar and stylistics. It studies the sound matter, its aspects and functions. Ph. formulates the rules of pronounciation for separate sounds and sound combinations.

Through the system of rules of reading Ph is connected with grammar and helps to pronaunce correctly singular and plural forms of nouns, the past tense forms and past participles of English regular verbs (d is pronaunced after voiced cons., t is pronaunced after voiceless cons. Wish-wished, id is pronounced after t want-wanted, s is pronaunced after voiceless cons., z is after voiced cons. and iz after sibilants (свистящие)).

Sound interchange is another manifestation of the connection of Ph with grammar, e.g. this connection can be observed in the category of number. Thus the interchange of f/v, s/z, th/the helps to differenciate singular and plural forms of such words as basis- bases, and also man-men, foot-feet. Vowel interchange is connected with the tense forms of irregular verbs (sing-sang-sung). Vowel interchange can also help to distinguish between: 1) nouns and verbs (bath-bathe), 2) adj and nouns (hot-heat), 3) verbs and adj (moderate-moderate), 4) nouns and nouns (shade-shadow), 5) nouns and adj (type-typical). Vowel interchange can also be observed in onomatopoetic compaunds (звукоподражательные сложные слова): hip-hop, flap-flop, chip-chop. Consonants can interchange in different parts of speech, e.g. in nouns and verbs (extent-extend, mouth-mouth).

Ph is also connected with grammar through its intonation component. Sometimes intonation alone can serve to single out the logical predicate. Pausation may also perform a differentiatory function. If we compare 2 similar sentences pronaunced with different places of pause, the meaning will be different.

Ph is also connected with lexicology. It is only due to the presence of stress in the right place, that we can distinguish certain nouns from verbs (formed by convercion).

Homographs can be differentiated only due to pronaunciation, because they are identical in spelling: bow(ou луг)-bow(au поклон), row(ou ряд)-row(au шум).

Due to the position of word accent we can distinguish between homonymous words and word groups.

Ph is also connected with stylistics; first of all through intonation and its components: speech melody, utterance (произнесение) stress, rythm, pausation and voicetember which serves to express emotions.

Ph is also connected with stylistics through repetition of words, phrases and sounds. Repetition of this kind serves the basis of rythm, rhyme and alliteration. The repetition of identical or similar sounds, which is called alliteration, helps to impart ( передавать) a melodic effect to the utterance and to express certain emotions.

Theoretical significance of Ph is connected with the further development of the problem of the study and description of the Ph system of a national language and different languages, the study of the correspondences between them, the description of changes in the Ph system of languages.

Practical significance of Ph is connected with teaching foreign languages, speech correction, teaching deaf-mutes, film doubling.

9. Style – different manner of non-verbal expression. The choice of a speech style is situationally determined. Any act of verb.com-n is changed by certain int-nal peculiarities which depend on such extra-ling-c factors (effect the situation) as: 1) the purpose of com-n; 2) social setting of curc-s; 3) social identity of the speeker; 4) individual speech habits; 5) em-nal state of the speeker. An int-l style – a s-m of interrelated int-nal means, which is used in a certain social spere and serves the def-te aim of com-n.

Clas-n by Sh.Bally: 1) highly elevated style; 2) elaborate pron-n (тщательное); 3) slow coll.pron-n; 4) fluent coll.pron-n. Clas-n by Sokolova, Gintovt, Kanter: 1) inform-al – formal; radio, press; 2) scientific – accad.; 3) declamatory; 4) publicific; 5) conversational. Inform-n: intellectual, emotional, volitional.

There are 5 styles by Sokolova, 1.informational style (speech of announces, oral representation of any kind of information written text, formal conversation) 2.scientific, academic st (a lecture o a scientific subject reading aloud a piece of scientific prose) 3.publicistic st (public discurse on a political topic economic) 4.conversational, familiar (the way of everyday communication) 5. declamatory (reading aloud any piece of prose o poetry)

Informational style:

1 a formal manner of presentation with occasionally interested оvertones and a number of hesitation and breath-taking pauses.

2 normal or increased loudness, moderate or rather slow rate (tempo of speech), varied pitch levels, ranges and intonation patterns.

3 businesslike, rather reserved voice timbre, systematic rhythm, the accentuation of the semantic centres through the use of expressive high falls and falling-rising tones, the use of several low falls within an intonation group and a phrase.

4 centralized accentuation, subjective isochrony contrasting with the rhythmicality achieved by the use of final categoric falls.

The academic style:

l The academic style represents the language of factual information, thus attitudinal and emphatic functions of intonation are of secondary importance here.

2 High falling and falling-rising terminal tones are widely used for logical and contrastive emphasis; the rhythmic organization of a scientific text is properly balanced by the alternation of all prosodic features.

3 The prosodic features of the academic-style reading are not greatly varied.

4 The phonostylistic characteristics of scientific discourse reading a overloaded with variations in tempo, loudness, pauses, pitch levels and ranges.

^ Publicistic style:

1intellectual and volitional information.

2 volitional and desiderative information .

3 attitudinal and emphatic meanings of intonation.

4 a combination of appropriate prosodic features which are realized in other phonostyles.

The declamatory style is called an artistic intonation style, the acquired style of the stage because:

l this style manifests itself in a written form of the language read aloud or recited.

2 attitudinal, volitional and intellectual functions of intonation come to the fore in this style, having the status of a style-ifferentiating value.

3 this style is performed on the stage, on the screen, on the radio, in a classroom.

4 this style is realized through all sorts of emotional and expressive devices requiring professional skills.

Conversational style:

1 Some pauses in the given context are used in places related closely to the grammatical structures.

2 The distribution of the pauses is correlated with falling terminal tones, the main factor of rhythmicality in informal English.

3 The pauses are made in between the words that mark the boundaries of phonetic wholes.

A number of pauses occur in appropriate places where they break the syntactic junctures in the given context.

Functional styles. There are 5 styles by Sokolova, 1.informational style (speech of announces, oral representation of any kind of information written text, formal conversation) 2.scientific, academic st (a lecture o a scientific subject reading aloud a piece of scientific prose) 3.publicistic st (public discurse on a political topic economic y etc ) 4.conversational, familiar (the way of everyday communication) 5. declamatory (reading aloud any piece of prose o poetry)

Phonostylistic is a part of linguistics it studies the way phonetic means of the language function in various oral realizations. phonost is concearned with the study of phonetic expressive means from stylistic pint of view. Functional style is – complex of different varieties of speech realized in all kinds of extra linguistic situation.

10. Phonemes. In a language or dialect, a phoneme (from the Greek: φώνημα, phōnēma, "a sound uttered") is the smallest segmental unit of sound employed to form meaningful contrasts between utterances[1].

Allophones are the linguistically non-significant variants of each phoneme. In other words a phoneme may be realised by more than one speech sound and the selection of each variant is usually conditioned by the phonetic environment of the phoneme. Occasionally allophone selection is not conditioned but may vary form person to person and occasion to occasion (ie. free variation).

A phoneme is a set of allophones or individual non-contrastive speech segments. Allophones are sounds, whilst a phoneme is a set of such sounds.

e.g. Pit[phit] spit[spit] In English, [p] and [ph] are allophones of the /p/ phoneme.

2 types of allophones: principal and subsidiary

Principal are the allophones which don’t undergo any changes in the flow of speech => they are the closest to the phoneme) Ex: [t] -> [to:k]

In the articulation of a subsidiary allophone we observe predictable changes under the influence of the phonetic context.

Ex: [d] – occlusive plosive stop, forelingual, apical-alveolar, voiced lenis (the phoneme)

[do:], [dog] – the principal allophones

[d] is slightly palatalized before front vowels and [j]: [ded], [did ju:]

without plosion before another stop: [gud dei], [bad pain]

with nasal plosion before nasal sonorants [m], [n]: [‘s^nd]

before [l] a literal plosion: [midl]

followed by “r” – [pst alveolar [d]: [dr^m]

before interdental sounds it becomes dental: [bredth]

when followed by [w] it becomes labialized: [dwel]

in word final position it’s partly devoiced: [ded]

They are all fore-lingual lenis stops, but they show some differences. The allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context.

We can’t pronounce a phoneme, we pronounce allophones, which are accompanied by several social and personal characteristics. The actual pronounced sounds which we hear are formed with stylistic, situational, personal and etc. characteristics. They are called phones.

11. Phonetics and phonology are related, dependent fields for studying aspects of language. Phonetics is the study of sound in speech; phonology is the study (and use) of sound patterns to create meaning. Phonetics focuses on how speech is physically created and received, including study of the human vocal and auditory tracts, acoustics, and neurology. Phonology relies on phonetic information for its practice, but focuses on how patterns in both speech and non-verbal communication create meaning, and how such patterns are interpreted. Phonology includes comparative linguistic studies of how cognates, sounds, and meaning are transmitted among and between human communities and languages.

Methods: we distinguish between subjective, introspective methods of phonetic investigation and objective methods.

The oldest, simplest and most readily available method is the method of direct observation. This method consists in observing the movements and positions of one's own or other people's organs of speech in pronouncing various speech sounds, as well as in analyzing one's own kinaesthetic sensations during the articulation of speech sound in comparing them with auditory impressions.

Objective methods involve the use of various instrumental techniques (palatography, laryngoscopy, photography, cinematography, X-ray photography and cinematography and electromyography). This type of investigation together with direct observation is widely used in experimental phonetics. The objective methods and the subjective ones are complementary and not opposite to one another. Nowadays we may use the up-to-date complex set to fix the articulatory parameters of speech - so called articulograph.

Acoustic phonetics comes close to studying physics and the tools used in this field enable the investigator to measure and analyze the movement of the air in the terms of acoustics. This generally means introducing a microphone into the speech chain, converting the air movement into corresponding electrical activity and analyzing (Ксень, это слово у Красы через «s», но, по-моему, тут «z») the result in terms of frequency of vibration and the amplitude of vibration in relation to time. The spectra of speech sounds are investigated by means of the apparatus called the sound spectrograph. Pitch as a component of intonation can be investigated by intonograph.

The acoustic aspect of speech sounds is investigated not only with the help of sound-analyzing techniques, but also by means of speech-synthesizing devices.

There are different types of oppositions:

1) single

the opposed sounds differ in one articulating feature only: [pen] – [ben]

voiceless voiced

2) double

the opposed sounds differ in 2 distinctive features : [pen] - [den]

bilabial forelingual voiceless voiced

3) triple (multiple)

the opposed sounds differ in 3 distinctive features: [pen] - [then]

voiceless voiced

bilabial interdental

occlusive stop constrictive fricative

There are some problems - sometimes sounds cannot be opposed:

Ex: [h] is never used in final position;

[n-носовое] is never in the initial position.

In such cases we rely on the knowledge of the native speaker and phonetic similarities or dissimilarities.