39. Independent Elements of the Sentence.

The following words and expressions are grammatically independent of the rest of the sentence; that is, they are not a necessary part, do not enter into its structure:-

(1) Person or thing addressed: "But you know them, Bishop;" "Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again."

(2) Exclamatory expressions: "But the lady-! Oh, heavens! will that spectacle ever depart from my dreams?"

The exclamatory expression, however, may be the person or thing addressed, same as (1), above: thus, "Ah, young sir! what are you about?" Or it may be an imperative, forming a sentence: "Oh, hurry, hurry, my brave young man!"

(3) Infinitive phrase thrown in loosely: "To make a long story short, the company broke up;" "Truth to say, he was a conscientious man."

(4) Prepositional phrase not modifying: "Within the railing sat, to the best of my remembrance, six quill-driving gentlemen;" "At all events, the great man of the prophecy had not yet appeared."

(5) Participial phrase:"But, generally speaking, he closed his literary toils at dinner;" "Considering the burnish of her French tastes, her noticing even this is creditable."

(6) Single words: as, "Oh, yes! everybody knew them;" "No, let him perish;" "Well, he somehow lived along;" "Why, grandma, how you're winking!" "Now, this story runs thus."

There are some adverbs, such as perhaps, truly, really, undoubtedly, besides, etc., and some conjunctions, such as however, then, moreover, therefore, nevertheless, etc., that have an office in the sentence, and should not be confused with the words spoken of above. The words well, now, why, and so on, are independent when they merely arrest the attention without being necessary.

40. Sentense in the text. Text the highest unit of speech. If we consider isolated sentences in a discourse, we find that it’s very rare that one sentence expresses the complete idea, which is clear without any context. Text is an ordered sequence of sentences combined of various types of logical, lexical and grammatical cohesion conveying structurally organized info. Text is a product of oral and written speech. Galperin recognizes the existence only of written text. Text can be interpreted as a lingual element with its two distinguishing features: first, semantic (topical) unity, second, semantico-syntactic cohesion. Cohesion is the main property of a text. The concept of it was first developed by Michael Halliday. It’s the relations existing among the sentences & clauses of a text. They are signaled by certain gram.& lex. means that are called cohesive. They mark which sentences are related & in what manner. It’s not a sufficient condition for the creation of the text. Cohesion is characterized by 2 types of relation: 1) logical-semantic, 2) anaphoric. Each of them have various gram.& lex.-gram.means of expressing these relations. Text cohesion & its relations may be realized through dif. means: -           Lexical: the repetition of the item, the use of synonyms, words of the same root. -           Lexical-grammatical: a) pronouns of dif. classes (he, she, they…); b) articles (“a\an” points to the center of communication; “the” – anaphorically used) -           Grammatical (the order is connected with actual division of the sent. The rheme of the previous sent. becomes the theme of the following one: ex. I saw a man. The man was tall.) Word-order as a syntactic means of sent. connection shows that the structure of the sent. depends on the structure of another. -           Conjunctions/ conjunct. words ( join not only composite sent., but also utterances within a text. Ex. Then, there…) -           Incomplete sent-s of the sintagmatic type can be understood with the help of the context.