15. Verbs. Category of tense

Tense in English is grouped into two types -- pure tense and modal tense. Pure tense refers to expressions of present, past, and future tenses in which secondary temporal reference / In other words, pure tense refers to expressions in which the attestation is known or thought to be true. Modal tense on the other hand, refers to expressions of present, past, or future in which the certainty of the attestation is not fully certain. In English these forms are expressed with the addition of a modal, modal phrase, or modal adverb.

Only the past tenses in English are expressed by declining the verb.

Present tenses are expressed via an unmarked form similar to those of the past tenses, but with the aspectual auxiliary only declined for agreement with person and number (do/does, am/is/are, have/has) in periphrastic forms. As with past tenses inflected forms may be used for certain affirmative statements.

Pure future tenses in English are expressed in the same way as the present tenses but with the addition of a future-marking adverb or time phrase.

Modal Tenses in English are expressed using either the fully undeclined modal form, or a pure tense form with an additional modal adverb or phrase. Modal tense is most often used in English for expressing futurity.

Modal Future refers to any of eight future forms in which the attestation cannot be known to be true due to the uncertain nature of future outcomes. These forms vary by certainty and always express that level of future certainty within the scope of a supporting mood.

16. Verbs. Category of Aspect

Verb phrases can also express two aspects: progressive and perfect. Aspect provides additional information on the speaker's perception of time.

Progressive aspect.The progressive aspect consists of the auxiliary be form and the -ing form of the lexical verb. Examples:

"She made her curtsy, and was departing when the wretched young captain sprang up, looked at her, and sank back on the sofa with another wild laugh."[45]

Properties:

Progressive aspect may be found in verb phrases containing modals.

Non-tensed -ing forms, however, do not have the progressive aspect

Progressive aspect can be combined with "to"-infinitive forms in a verb phrase.

Perfect aspect

The perfect aspect is created by the auxiliary "have" and the "-ed" participle form of the lexical verb.[43] It refers to a time period that includes the present moment.[43] Contrast "The flowers didn't bloom this summer" with "The flowers haven't bloomed this summer." The latter sentence suggests that the summer is not over yet.

Properties:

The perfect aspect can pair with modal verbs.

The perfect aspect can be combined with the -ing and the to-infinitive forms.

Finally, the two aspects, progressive and perfect, can be combined in a verb phrase: "They've been laughing so hard that their sides hurt."

17. Verbs. Category of Voice

The category of Voice expresses the relations bw the subject and the action, but according to other view Voice expresses the relations bw the subj and the obj of the action expressed by the form of the verb. Ex. John opened the door. The subj. of sent. is the doer of the action expressed by the predicate verb. In some cases the lex. character of the verb the subj. of the active construction can’t be regarded as the doer of the action. These cases are: ex. He lost his father in the war.; he broke his leg. Disagreement btw the gram. form of the verb and the lex. mean-g of the verb. Due to the lex. mean-g of the V the semantics of the construction becomes passive. In fact the subj. is not the doer, but the sufferer. Some grammarians treat these constructions as active due to the gram. form.

The category of voice is realized through the opposition Active voice::Passive voice. Passive – marked -> pattern “be + II participle”, active –unmarked The realization of the voice category is restricted because of the implicit grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity. In accordance with this meaning, all English verbs should fall into transitive and intransitive. However, the classification turns out to be more complex and

comprises 6 groups:

1. Verbs used only transitively: to mark, to raise;

2.Verbs with the main transitive meaning: to see, to make, to build;

3. Verbs of intransitive meaning and secondary transitive meaning. A lot of intransitive verbs may develop a secondary transitive meaning: They laughed me into agreement; He danced the girl out of the room;

4.Verbs of a double nature, neither of the meanings are the leading one, the verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively: to drive home - to drive a car;

5.Verbs that are never used in the Passive Voice: to seem, to become;

6. Verbs that realize their passive meaning only in special contexts: to live, to sleep, to sit, to walk, to jump.

Some scholars admit the existence of Middle, Reflexive and Reciprocal voices.

"Middle Voice" - the verbs primarily transitive may develop an intransitive middle meaning: That adds a lot; The door opened; The book sells easily; The dress washes well.

"Reflexive Voice": He dressed; He washed - the subject is both the agent and the recipient of the action at the same time. It is always possible to use a reflexive pronoun in this case: He washed himself.

"Reciprocal voice”: They met; They kissed - it is always possible to use a reciprocal pronoun here: They kissed each other.

18. Verbs. Category of Mood

A verb phrase can also express mood, which refers to the "factual or non-factual status of events." There are three moods in English: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.[49]

Indicative mood

The indicative is the most common mood in English. It is a factual mood, and most constructions involving the various choices of person, tense, number, aspect, modality are in the indicative mood..

Imperative mood

The imperative mood is a non-factual mood and is employed for issuing directives:[49]

Subjunctive mood

The subjunctive mood is also a non-factual mood which refers to demands, desires, etc.

Properties:

Subjunctives can be used after conditional subordinators.[49]

Subjunctives can also be used after expressions of necessity.[49]

The subjunctive form of the verb "be" can occur as the base form "be".[49]

19. The adjective

In grammar, an adjective is a word whose main syntactic role is to modify a noun or pronoun, giving more information about the noun or pronoun's referent. Collectively, adjectives form one of the traditional English eight parts of speech, though linguists today distinguish adjectives from words such as determiners that also used to be considered adjectives.

Not all languages have adjectives, but most, including English, do. (English adjectives include big, old, and tired, among many others.) Those that do not, typically use words of another part of speech, often verbs, to serve the same semantic function;

In most languages with adjectives, they form an open class of words; that is, it is relatively common for new adjectives to be formed via such processes as derivation.

A given occurrence of an adjective can generally be classified into one of four kinds of uses:

Attributive adjectives are part of the noun phrase headed by the noun they modify; for example, happy is an attributive adjective in "happy people".

Predicative adjectives are linked via a copula or other linking mechanism to the noun or pronoun they modify; for example, happy is a predicate adjective in "they are happy" and in "that made me happy."

Absolute typically modify either the subject of a sentence or whatever noun or pronoun they are closest to; for example, happy is an absolute adjective in "The boy, happy with his lollipop, did not look where he was going."

Nominal adjectives act almost as nouns. One way this can happen is if a noun is elided and an attributive adjective is left behind.

Intensifier quality size age color participle proper

20. The pronoun

pronoun is a pro-form that substitutes for a noun (or noun phrase) with or without a determiner, such as you and they in English. The replaced phrase is called the antecedent of the pronoun.

Personal pronouns stand in place of the names of people or things:

Subjective pronouns are used when the person or thing is the subject of the sentence or clause. English example: I like to eat chips, but she does not.

Second person formal and informal pronouns (T-V distinction). F

Inclusive and exclusive "we" pronouns indicate whether the audience is included. There is no distinction in English.

Intensive pronouns, also known as emphatic pronouns, re-emphasize a noun or pronoun that has already been mentioned.

Objective pronouns are used when the person or thing is the object of the sentence or clause. English example: John likes me but not her.

Direct and indirect object pronouns. English uses the same forms for both; for example: Mary loves him (direct object); Mary sent him a letter (indirect object).

Reflexive pronouns are used when a person or thing acts on itself. English example:

Reciprocal pronouns refer to a reciprocal relationship. English example: They do not like each other.

Prepositional pronouns come after a preposition. No distinct forms exist in English; for example: Anna and Maria looked at him.

Disjunctive pronouns are used in isolation or in certain other special grammatical contexts. No distinct forms exist in English; for example: Who does this belong to? Me.

Weak pronouns.

Demonstrative pronouns distinguish the particular objects or people that are referred to from other possible candidates. English example: I'll take these.

Indefinite pronouns refer to general categories of people or things. English example: Anyone can do that.

Distributive pronouns are used to refer to members of a group separately rather than collectively. English example: To each his own.

Negative pronouns indicate the non-existence of people or things. English example: Nobody thinks that.

Relative pronouns refer back to people or things previously mentioned. English example: People who smoke should quit now.

Interrogative pronouns ask which person or thing is meant. English example: Who did that?

21. The numeral

A numeral is a written symbol that represents the value of a number.

In English, the term Arabic numerals can be ambiguous. It most commonly refers to the numeral system widely used in Europe and the Americas. Arabic numerals is the conventional name for the entire family of related systems of Arabic and Indian numerals. It may also be intended to mean the numerals used by Arabs, in which case it generally refers to the Eastern Arabic numerals.

22. An article (abbreviated art) is a word that combines with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. Articles specify the grammatical definiteness of the noun, in some languages extending to volume or numerical scope. The articles in the English language are the, a, and an. (Some can in certain circumstances function as a plural of a/an.)

Among the classical parts of speech, articles are considered a special category of adjectives. Some modern linguists prefer to classify them within a separate part of speech, determiners.

n languages that employ articles, every common noun, with some exceptions, is expressed with a certain definiteness Every noun must be accompanied by the article, if any, corresponding to its definiteness, and the lack of an article (considered a zero article) itself specifies a certain definiteness. This is in contrast to other adjectives and determiners, which are typically optional. This obligatory nature of articles makes them among the most common words in many languages—in English, for example, the most frequent word is the

Articles are usually characterized as either definite or indefinite.[2] A few languages with well-developed systems of articles may distinguish additional subtypes.

Within each type, languages may have various forms of each article, according to grammatical attributes such as gender, number, or case, or according to adjacent sounds.

A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be the same thing that the speaker has already mentioned, or it may be something uniquely specified. The definite article in English is the.

Indefinite article indicates that its noun is not yet a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be something that the speaker is mentioning for the first time, or its precise identity may be irrelevant or hypothetical, or the speaker may be making a general statement about any such thing. English uses a or an (depending on the initial sound of the next word) as its indefinite article.

Negative article specifies none of its noun, and can thus be regarded as neither definite nor indefinite. On the other hand, some consider such a word to be a simple determiner rather than an article. In English, this function is fulfilled by no.

No man is an island.

Zero article The zero article is the absence of an article.

23. The syntactic level has 2 level units. 1-the word group – the dependent syntactic unit. 2-sentence – the smallest unit of human communication. We usually communicate with one another with the help of sentence, but not suparate word or words combinations. In speech sentences are represented by utterences.

24. Sentence

sentence is the smallest unit of communication as we conveying our thougts with the help of sentence.The S is only language unit. Wth the help of S one can make a stetament, command, request or ask a question for optaing some information. A sentence can include words grouped meaningfully to express a statement, question, exclamation, request or command.

As with all language expressions, sentences may contain both function and content words, and contain properties distinct to natural language, such as characteristic intonation and timing patterns.

It is rather difficult to difine the sentence as it is connected with many lingual and extralingual espect – logical, psucological, philosophical. According to Pocheptsov, the S – is the central syntactic construction used as the minimal communicative unit that has its primary predication, actualizes a definite structural theme and perpess, definite intonation characteristics. This definition works only in case we do not take into account the difference between the S and the utterance. The distinction between the sentence and the utterance is of fundamental importance because is an abstract theoretical entity defined within the theory of grmmar while the utterance is the actual use of the sentence.In other word S is a language unit, while the U is a unit of speech.

25.Classification of the Sentence s By structure

A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause with no dependent clauses.

A compound sentence consists of multiple independent clauses with no dependent clauses. These clauses are joined together using conjunctions, punctuation, or both.

A complex sentence consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause.

A complex-compound sentence (or compound-complex sentence) consists of multiple independent clauses, at least one of which has at least one dependent clause.

By purpose

A declarative sentence or declaration, the most common type, commonly makes a statement: I am going home.

An interrogative sentence or question is commonly used to request information — When are you going to work? — but sometimes not; see rhetorical question.

An exclamatory sentence or exclamation is generally a more emphatic form of statement expressing emotion: What a wonderful day this is!

An imperative sentence or command tells someone to do something: Go to work at 7:30 tomorrow morning.

26 .Communicative Sentences

These types of sentences are more intended for the speaker's sake than for any potential listener. They are meant more for the speaker's immediate wants and needs. These sentences tend to be less intentional (out of frustration for example), in general more rhetorical, more primitive, and are usually about the here and now.

Exclamative

An exclamative or exclamatory sentence is released because of, and expresses strong emotion. They many times feel like involuntary reactions to a situation, yet they can technically be stifled if need be.

Imperative

An imperative sentence gives anything from a command or order, to a request, a suggestion, direction, or instruction. Imperative sentences are a little more intentional than exclamatory sentences and do require an audience; as their aim is to get the person(s) being spoken to either do or not do something.

Informative Sentences

Informative sentences are more for the benefit of both the listener and the speaker, and, in fact, require more of an interaction between both parties involved. They are more intentional or premeditated, less rhetorical, and they intend to either provide or retrieve information.

Declarative

The declarative sentence is the most common kind of sentence in language, in most situations, and in a way can be considered the default function of a sentence.

Interrogative

An interrogative sentence asks a question and therefore ends with a question mark. Its effort is to try and gather information that is previously unknown to the interrogator, or to seek validation for a preconceived notion held.

27. The Simple Sentence A sentence is a unit of speech whose grammatical structure conforms to the laws of the language and which serves as the chief means of conveying a thought. According to the purpose of the utterance there are 4 kinds of SS: 1) The declarative sentence – states a fact in the affirmative or negative form, the subject precedes the predicate, generally pronounced with a falling intonation. The predicate can have only 1 negation. 2) The interrogative S – asks a question, formed by means of inversion (the predicate or part of it is placed before the subject): General Q requiring the answer "yes" or "no" and spoken with a rising int., formed by placing auxiliary or modal verb before the subject; Special Q beginning with an interrogative word and spoken with a falling int., the word order is the same as in GQ, but the interrogative word precedes the verb; Alternative Q indicating choice and spoken with a rising int. in the first part and a falling int. in the second; Disjunctive Q requiring the answer "yes" or "no" and consisting of an affirmative statement followed by a negative Q or vice versa, the first part is spoken with a fall and the second with a rise. 3) The imperative sentence – serves to induce a person to do smth., so it expresses a command (a fall), a request, an invitation (a rise), etc. 4) The exclamatory sentence – expresses emotion or feeling, often begins with the words "what, how", always in the declarative form, generally spoken with a falling int. According to the structure SS are divided into: 1) A two-member sentence has two members (a subject and a predicate). It can be complete (both members are present) and incomplete (elliptical) (one or both members are missing, but can be easily understood from the context). 2) A one-member sentence has only one member which is neither the subject nor the predicate, one member makes the sense complete, used in descriptions and emotional speech. Mostly expressed by a noun (a nominal sentence) or an infinitive. 1) An unextended sentence consists only of the primary parts. 2) An extended sentence consists of the subject, the predicate and one or more secondary parts (objects, attributes or AM).

28. Composite Sentence

The composite sentence, as different from the simple sentence, is formed by two or more predicative lines, it is a poly predicative structure and thus express a complex act of thought.. Each predicative unit in a composite sentence makes up a clause in it,so that a clause as part of a composite sentence corresponds to aseparate sentence as part of a contextual sequence.

According to the traditional point of view all CS are devided into the compound and complex sentence with syndatic and asyndatic types of clause connection. Clauses are defined as a parts of CS, they are usually characterize by the presents for their own subject and predicate.CS are formed by minimum two clauses. There exist some controversial points of view conserning the parts of CS. Some grammarians (Виноградов, Поспелов) hold it thatwe don’t communicate with the help of separate clauses but with the help of sentences. Clauses are only constituent parts of CS. Another grammarians (Бархударов, Васильєва) consider that the clauses evn within CS retain the full-fleged sentene.