3. Types of systemic relations-paradigmatic and syntagmatic

Saussure was 'concerned exclusively with three sorts of systemic relationships:

-- that between a signifier and a signified;

-- those between a sign and all of the other elements of its system;

-- and those between a sign and the elements which surround it within a concrete signifying instance

He emphasized that meaning arises from the differences between signifiers; these differences are of two kinds: syntagmatic (concerning positioning) and paradigmatic (concerning substitution). Whilst syntagmatic relations are possibilities of combination, paradigmatic relations are functional contrasts - they involve differentiation. Temporally, syntagmatic relations refer intratextually to other signifiers co-present within the text, whilst paradigmatic relations refer intertextually to signifiers which are absent from the text . The 'value' of a sign is determined by both its paradigmatic and its syntagmatic relations. Syntagms and paradigms provide a structural context within which signs make sense; they are the structural forms through which signs are organized into codes.

4. Grammar

In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules that govern the composition of sentences, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics, and pragmatics. Linguists do not normally use the term to refer to orthographical rules, although usage books and style guides that call themselves grammars may also refer to spelling and punctuation.

Methods of grammar

Finalize------Allows an Object to attempt to free resources and perform other cleanup operations before the Object is reclaimed by garbage collection. (Inherited from Object.)

GetHashCode-----Serves as a hash function for a particular type. (Inherited from Object.)

GetType----Gets the Type of the current instance. (Inherited from Object.)

MemberwiseClone-----Creates a shallow copy of the current Object. (Inherited from Object.)

ToString------ Returns a String that represents the current Object. (Inherited from Object.)

5. Morpolog clasic of language. Syntactical and analytical Morphological typology is a way of classifying th languages of the world that groups languages according to their common morphological structures. Analytic languages show a low ratio of morphemes to words; in fact, the correspondence is nearly one-to-one. Sentences in analytic languages are composed of independent root morphemes. There is little to no morphological change in words: they tend to be uninflected. Individual words carry a general meaning (root concept); nuances are expressed by other words. Finally, in analytic languages context and syntax are more important than morphology. Additionally, English is moderately analytic (probably one of the most analytic of Indo-European languages). However, it is traditionally analyzed as a synthetic language. English is an analytical language, in which grammatical meaning in largely expressed through the use of additional words and by changes in word order. Synthetic languages form words by affixing a given number of dependent morphemes to a root morpheme. The morphemes may be distinguishable from the root, or they may not. Therefore, morphology in synthetic languages is more important than syntax. Most Indo-European languages are moderately synthetic.

6. Morpheme. Features .types a morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning. In spoken language, morphemes are composed of phonemes (the smallest linguistically distinctive units of sound), and in written language morphemes are composed of graphemes (the smallest units of written language).The concept morpheme differs from the concept word, as many morphemes cannot stand as words on their own. Its actual phonetic representation is the morph, with the different morphs representing the same morpheme being grouped as its allomorphs. Types of morphemes ---Free morphemes like town, and dog can appear with other lexemes or they can stand alone, i.e. "free". ---Bound morphemes like "un-" appear only together with other morphemes to form a lexeme. Bound morphemes in general tend to be prefixes and suffixes. ---Derivational morphemes can be added to a word to create (derive) another word: the addition of "-ness" to "happy," for example, to give "happiness." They carry semantic information. ---Inflectional morphemes modify a word's tense, number, aspect, and so on, without deriving a new word or a word in a new grammatical category. Allomorphs are variants of a morpheme, e.g. the plural marker in English is sometimes realized as /-z/, /-s/ or /-ɨz/.

7.The word. structure. Types

A word is the smallest free form in a language, in contrast to a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning. A word may consist of only one morpheme (e.g. wolf), but a single morpheme may not be able to exist as a free form (e.g. the English plural morpheme -s).

Typically, a word will consist of a root or stem, and zero or more affixes. Words can be combined to create other units of language, such as phrases, clauses, and/or sentences. A word consisting of two or more stems joined together form a compound.

Word may refer to a spoken word or a written word, or sometimes, the abstract concept behind either. Spoken words are made up of phonemes, and written words of graphemes.

In linguistics, a stem is a part of a word. The term is used with slightly different meanings.

In one usage, a stem is a form to which affixes can be attached. Thus, in this usage, the English word friendships contains the stem friend, to which the derivational suffix -ship is attached to form a new stem friendship, to which the inflectional suffix -s is attached. In a variant of this usage, the root of the word (in the example, friend) is not counted as a stem.Stems may be roots, e.g. run, or they may be morphologically complex, as in compound words.

8. Parts of speech classifications All the words in the vocabulary stock of the language should be organized traditionally. They’re organized into 8 parts of speech. This classification dates back to the ancient times: nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Ilysh adds numerals, statives, modal words and particles.

Хаймович и Роговская add articles and response words. When we classify parts of speech, we take into consideration different dimension ex: morphological characters.

H.Sweet:

1)declinables (nouns, adj, erbs)

2)Indiclinable (adverbs, prepositions, conjuncts, interjections)

Syntactic functions:

1Noun-words, noun, noun numerals, noun pronouns

2Adj.words

3Verb.words.

Classification of  O.Jespersen. His theory is between syntax & morphology.

1Substantives

2Adj.

3Pronouns

5Verbs including overbids

4Particles very mixed group.

He also analyzes classes from the point of view of their functions in the sentence and phrase.

Here we take his theory of 3 ranges. In any composite denomination of a thing or person we always find that there is one word of supreme importance to which the others are joined as subordinated. The chief word is defined (qualified, modified) by another word, which in its turn may be defined (qualified, modified) by a third word, etc. we are to establish different ranks of words according to their mutual relations as defined or defining.

Words can be of

Primary rang, Secondary rang, Tertiary. Ex: furiosly(3) barking(2) dog(1)

Ch. Fries developed the classification on the base of the function (role in the sentence). He classified words using 3 typical sentences, which he called frames. He established 4 classes and 15 groups of structural words.

Russian linguistic tradition developed 3 classification of the base of meaning, form, and function.

Pr. Admony propose field theory the new nucleus of the field occupied with words possessing all the properties of the giving parts of speech. 1) Verb: action or state; ex.: (to) be, have, do, like, work, sing, can, must. 2) Noun: thing or person; ex.: pen, dog, work, music, town, London, teacher, John. 3) Adjective: describes a noun; ex. 69, some, good, big, red, well, interesting. 4) Adverb: describes a verb, adjective or adverb; ex.: quickly, silently, well, badly, very, really. 5) Pronoun: replaces a noun; ex.; I, you, he, she, some. 6) Preposition: links a noun to another word; ex.: to, at, after, on, but. 7) Conjunction: joins clauses or sentences or words; ex.: and, but, when. 8) Interjection: short exclamation, sometimes inserted into a sentence; ex.:oh!, ouch!, hi!, well.

9. Noun as part os speech

In linguistics, a noun is a member of a large, open lexical category whose members can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.

The syntactic rules for nouns differ from language to language. In English, nouns may be defined as those words which can occur with articles and attributive adjectives and can function as the head of a noun phrase.

In traditional English grammar, the noun is one of the eight parts of speech.they are all and only those expressions that refer to a person, place, thing, event, substance, quality, quantity, or idea, etc. This is a semantic definition.

Classification of nouns in English

Proper nouns (also called proper names) are nouns representing unique entities (such as London, Jupiter, or Toyota), as distinguished from common nouns which describe a class of entities (such as city, planet, person or car).

Countable and uncountable nouns

Count nouns are common nouns that can take a plural, can combine with numerals or quantifiers (e.g., one, two, several, every, most), and can take an indefinite article (a or an). Examples of count nouns are chair, nose, and occasion.

Mass nouns (or non-count nouns) differ from count nouns in precisely that respect: they can't take plural or combine with number words or quantifiers. Examples from English include laughter, cutlery, helium, and furniture.

Collective nouns are nouns that refer to groups consisting of more than one individual or entity, even when they are inflected for the singular. Examples include committee, herd, and school (of fish).

Concrete nouns refer to physical entities that can, in principle at least, be observed by at least one of the senses (for instance, chair, apple, Janet or atom). Abstract nouns, on the other hand, refer to abstract objects; that is, ideas or concepts (such as justice or hatred).

Nouns and noun phrases can typically be replaced by pronouns, such as he, it, which, and those, in order to avoid repetition or explicit identification, or for other reasons.