6)Lexical Peculiarities of the Scientific Style.

(Galperin)The language of science is governed by the aim of the functional style of scientific prose, which is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc. The language means used, therefore, tend to be objective, precise, and unemotional, devoid of any individuality; there is a striving for the most generalized form of expression. The main l-ge function is referential one.

The most conspicuous feature is the use of terms specific to each given branch of science. Some scientific and technical terms begin to circulate outside the narrow field they belong to and eventually begin to develop new meanings. But the overwhelming majority of terms does not undergo this process of de-terminization and remain the property of scientific prose. The necessity to penetrate deeper into the essence of things and phenomena gives rise to new concepts, which require new words to name them. The general vocabulary, words used in scientific prose will always tend-to be used in their primary logical meaning. Hardly a single word will be found here which, in contrast to the belles-lettres style, is used in more than one meaning. Nor will there be any words with contextual meaning. Even the possibility of ambiguity is avoided. Furthermore, terms are coined so as to be self-explanatory to the greatest possible degree. But in spite of this a new term in scientific prose is generally followed (or preceded!) by an explanation. In modern scientific prose an interesting phenomenon can be observed— the exchange of terms between various - branches of science. This is evidently due to the interpenetration of scientific ideas. The exchange of terminology may therefore be regarded as a natural outcome of this collaboration. - Mathematics has priority in this respect. Mathematical terms have left their own domain and travel freely in other sciences, including linguistics.

The use of quotations and references. The references also have a definite compositional pattern, namely, the name of the writer referred to, the title of the work quoted, the publishing house, the place and year it was published, and the page of the excerpt quoted or referred to.

The frequent use of fооt-nоtes, not of the reference kind, but digressive in character. In modern scientific prose such emotional words are very seldom used. At least they are not constituents of modern scientific style. Nor can we find emotional structures or stylistic devices which aim at rousing aesthetic feelings. The language of much scientific writing is unintelligible to ordinary people uninitiated in the principles of the given science. All the participants in the discussion agreed that science must have its own language (that is, its own vocabulary) and that the exposition of new ideas in science must rest on a very solid foundation of previously acquired knowledge. But what they actually meant was not only the knowledge of the terminology of the given science, but also an immediate recognition of technicalities in the text, which predetermines understanding. These pre-requisites are confined exclusively to the lexical aspect of the language. So it is not the language itself that is special, but certain words or their symbols.

(Arnold)

1. Logical emphasis can be expressed explicitly with the use of words (note that, I wish to emphasize, etc.)

2. Other peculiarities. The use of the 1 person plural form. “We” instead of “I” to 1) show that the group of scientists has been working at the problem and 2) to involve the reader.

3. Expressive means are not excluded. Quantity expressiveness (much less limited, very far from) is used more often than image expressiveness (it is used when new terms are coined). Expressiveness can also be expressed through explicit or implicit claim for objectivity of the addresser.

4. Lexis. Words are used in their primary meanings, or as terms, but not in their expressive meanings.

5. The main bulk of the vocabulary is neutral. However bookish words are also used. Bookish words – usually long, borrowed words, sometimes not fully assimilated (have different flections in the plural (automation-automata).

6. Morphology. The uses of nominal words, verbal words are used not so often. Nominal constructions give more generalization.

7. The terms that name abstract thing or material have plural form (steel-steels).

7)Structural Peculiarities of the Scientific Style.

The language of science is governed by the aim of the functional style of scientific prose, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena. The language means used, therefore, tend to be objective, precise, unemotional, devoid of any individuality; there is a striving for the most generalized form of expression.

The first and most noticeable feature of this style is the l о g i с a l sequence of utterances with clear indication of their interrelations and interdependence. It will not be an exaggeration to say that in no other functional style do we find such a developed and varied system of connectives as in scientific prose.

Anpther characteristic feature of scientific style is what we may call sentence-patterns. They are of three types: pоstulatory, argumentative and formulative. A hypothesis, a scientific conjecture or a forecast must be based on facts already known, on facts systematized and defined. Therefore, every piece of scientific prose will begin with postulatory pronouncements which are taken as self-evident and needing no proof. A reference to these facts is only preliminary to the exposition of the writer's ideas and is therefore summed up in precisely formulated statements accompanied, if considered necessary, by references to sources. The definition sentence-pattern in a scientific utterance, that is, the sentence which sums up the argument, is generally a kind of clincher sentence.

The impersonality of scientific writings can also be considered a typical feature of this style. This quality is mainly revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions. In connection with the general impersonal tone of expression, it should be noted that impersonal passive constructions are frequently used with the verbs suppose, assume, presume, conclude, infer, point out, etc., as in: 'It should be pointed out', 'It must not be assumed', 'It must be emphasized', 'It can be inferred', etc.

There is a noticeable difference in the syntactical design of utterances in the exact sciences (mathematics, chemistry, physics, etc.) and in the humanities. -The passive constructions frequently used in the scientific prose of the exact sciences are not indispensable in the humanities. This, perhaps, is due to the fact that the data and methods of investigation applied in the humanities are less objective. The necessity to quote passages under observation and to amplify arguments seriously affects syntactical patterns. In the humanities some seemingly well-known pronouncement may be and often is subjected to re-evaluation, whereas in the exact sciences much can be accepted without question and therefore needs no comment.

(Arnold) Syntax and logics.

1. Complex sentences.

2. Almost all sentences are extended.

3. Simple short sentences are used to state the main idea, the most important one.

4. Different members of the sentence are extended. A lot of postpositional and prepositional attributes, or whole attributive groups (they are used to limit the notion, to make it definite and precise)

5. Many words are explained through the gerundial, participial, prepositional, and infinitive constructions (they are used to limit the notion, to make it definite and precise).

6. Cohesion is achieved through the abundant use of prepositions, and double prepositions: not merely but also, both…and, as…as. Also some archaic prepositions: thereby, therewith, and hereby.

7. The word order is usually direct. Inversion can be used to achieve logical development of the thought.

8. Division into paragraphs is very important for the logics of the whole text. Every paragraph begins with the sentence that expresses the main idea of the paragraph. To intensify the logics the following phrases are used: to sum up, as we have seen. the same result is achieved through such adverbs as finally, again, thus.

9. Logical emphasis can be expressed explicitly with the use of words (note that, I wish to emphasize, etc.)

10. Other peculiarities. The use of the 1 person plural form. “We” instead of “I” to 1) show that the group of scientists has been working at the problem and 2) to involve the reader.

11. Expressive means are not excluded. Quantity expressiveness (much less limited, very far from) is used more often than image expressiveness (it is used when new terms are coined). Expressiveness can also be expressed through explicit or implicit claim for objectivity of the addresser.

12. Lexis. Words are used in their primary meanings, or as terms, but not in their expressive meanings.

13. The main bulk of the vocabulary is neutral. However bookish words are also used. Bookish words – usually long, borrowed words, sometimes not fully assimilated (have different flections in the plural (automation-automata).

14. Morphology. The uses of nominal words, verbal words are used not so often. Nominal constructions give more generalization.

15. The use of passive constructions. (give more generalization)

16. Impersonal constructions. Formal subject “ it”

17. The terms that name abstract thing or material have plural form (steel-steels).