- •The Object and Aims of Stylistics.
- •2)The Norm of Language. Standard English.
- •3)Functional Style. Register.
- •5)Scientific Style. Its Criteria and Linguistic Peculiarities.
- •6)Lexical Peculiarities of the Scientific Style.
- •8) The Style of Official Documents. Its Criteria and Linguistic Peculiarities.
- •9)Newspaper Style. Its Criteria and Linguistic Peculiarities.
- •10) Lexical Peculiarities of the Newspaper Style.
- •11) Structural Peculiarities of the ns
- •12) Publicistic Style. Its criteria and linguistic peculiarities
- •13) Lexical Peculiarities of the ps
- •14) Structural Peculiarities of the ps
- •15) Literary-Colloquial Style / Received Standard /. Its Criteria & Linguistic Peculiarities
- •16) Lexical Peculiarities of the Literary-Colloquial Style
- •17) Structural Peculiarities of the Literary-Colloquial Style
- •18) Familiar Colloquial Style. Its Criteria & Linguistic Peculiarities
- •19) Low Colloquial Speech. Its Criteria & Linguistic Peculiarities
- •20) Stylistic Differentiation of Vocabulary
- •21. Formal English vocabulary and its stylistic functions
- •22. Informal English vocabulary and its stylistic functions
- •23. Common literary words and their stylistic functions
- •29. Poetic, Highly Literary Words, Archaisms
- •30. Neutral words
- •31. Stylistic colouring
- •32. Word and its Meaning. Denotation and Connotation. Implication. Presupposition.
- •33. Context
- •34. Stylistic context
- •35. Stylistic function
- •37. Language and speech functions.
- •38) Stylistic Differentiation of Phraseological Units. Stylistic Functioning of Phraseological Units.
- •The Clichés
- •Proverbs and Sayings
- •Epigrams
- •Allusions
- •39). Phonetic Expressive Means & Stylistic Devices.
- •40) Graphic Expressive Means.
- •41) Expressive Means & Stylistic Devices. Tropes. Figures of Speech.
- •42). The Metaphoric Group of sd: Metaphor, Simile, Personification, Epithet.
- •43) Stylistic Devices Based on the Relations of Inequality: Climax, Anticlimax, Hyperbole, Litotes.
- •44. Metonymic Group of sd: Metonymy, Synechdoche.
- •46. Stylistic Devices Based on the Relations of Identity: Synonymic Pairs, Synonymic Variation, Euphemism, Periphrasis.
- •47. Sd based on the relations of opposition: Oxymoron, Antithesis, Irony.
- •48. Inversion, Detachment, Parenthesis.
- •49. Expressive means based on the absence of the logically required components: Ellipsis, Break-in-the narrative, nominative sentences, apokoinu constructions.
- •51. Expressive means based on the Transferred use of structural meaning: Rhetoric question, Emphatic negation, reported speech.
- •52. Expressive means based on the Juxtaposition of different parts of the utterance: Parallelism, Chiasmus, Anaphora, Epiphora.
- •53. Expressive means based on the way the parts are connected: Asyndeton, polysyndeton, the Gap- Sentence Link.
- •54) Semi-marked structures
- •55) Zeugma, Semantically false chain, pun.
- •56) Enumeration, suspense.
- •57. Nouns
- •58.Pronouns
- •59. Adjectives. Verb. Adverbs
- •60) Literary Criticism and Linguistic Stylistics.
- •61) Stylistic Analysis/ from the Author’s, Reader’s point of view. Levels and Methods of Analysis. Linguostylistic analysis of imaginative literature.
- •62. Interaction of Stylistic Colouring& the Context
- •63. The use of the stylistically coloured words in a literary text
- •64. Expressiveness of word-building
- •65. Semantic Structure of the Word & Interaction of Direct & Indirect Transferred Meanings
- •66. The Use of Polysemy and Repetition
- •67.Lexical Analysis & a Literary Text Analysis. Thematic Net.
- •68. The theory of Images. The structure. Functions of images.
- •69.Syntactic Convergence.
- •70. Text: the Author’s Speech. Direct and Indirect Represented Speech. Paragraph.
- •71. Formal & Informal English.
- •Informal english:
- •72. Spoken & Written English.
- •73. Plot and Plot Structure.
- •74. System of Images. Means of Characterization.
- •75. Narrative Method.
- •76. Tonal System.
- •77. The Message of a Literary Work.
- •78. Style in Language.
76. Tonal System.
In every literary work the writer's feelings and emotions are reflected in the tone, attitude and atmosphere.
Atmosphere is the general mood of a literary work. It is affected by such strands of a literary work as the plot, setting, characters, details, symbols, and language means.
The authоr's attitude is his view of the characters and actions. It reflects his judgement of them. The author's attitude establishes the moral standards according to which the reader is to make his judgements about the problems raised in the story. The reader is expected to share the author's attitude. The attitude of a writer to his subject matter determines the tone of the story.
The tone is the light in which the characters and events are depicted. The tone, therefore, is closely related to atmosphere and attitude. Tone in oral speech is a component of intonation and is one of the prosodic means of expressing the speaker's attitude to the subject matter and to his interlocutor. Tone is so important in oral communication that it can overrule the sense of the grammatical structure of an utterance or the lexical meanings of words. Tone in oral speech is primarily conveyed by modulations of the voice pitch, whereas in written speech the tone is mainly conveyed verbally, primarily by emotionally coloured words. (For example, the indices of the sombre and gloomy tone in The Oval Portrait are suchwords as "gloom", "deep midnight", "deep shadow", "dreamy stupour","vague yet detp shadow", "vague and quaint words", etc.)
A humorous tone is created by an apt usage of deliberate exaggerations, a round-about way of naming things (or periphrasis), unexpected comparison (or simile), jargonisms, dialectal words, words which sound amusing in the particular situation because they do not belong in it.
The usage of these means often produces a humorous effect and testifies to the inventiveness and wit of the author. (In O'Henry's story The Cop and the Anthem humour is attained by unexpected occurrence of foreign and learned words in very homely situations).
The object of humour is generally a funny incident or an odd feature of human character. When the writer ridicules social vices and weaknesses of human nature that are typical of social groups or classes, the humour is then ironical or satirical humour.
Irony is identified as a double sense which arises from contrast. It is a wide-ranging phenomenon and may be achieved both by linguistic and extra-linguistic means. Verbal irony is manifested in a word or a sentence which in a particular context acquires a meaning opposite of what it generally has. Irony in such a case suggests the discrepancy between a statement and its actual sense. The actual sense is the true one that an intelligent reader is expected to deduce.
Irony may be extended over a whole story and may be created extralinguistically by the contrast between what the character seeks and what he obtains. This is called "irony of life".
The author may also create irony by letting the reader know something a character does not know, or amazing both the reader and the character by quite an unexpected result or consequence of an action, which turns out to be quite opposite to what the character hoped and expected. This is called "dramatic irony". (O'Henry's story The Cop and the Anthem affords an excellent illustration of dramatic irony. The series of unexpected turns of events and the surprise ending in the story are deeply ironical.)
Irony may be achieved by simulated adoption of another's point of view for the purpose of revealing certain weaknesses, or for the purpose of ridicule and sarcasm. The contrast between the adopted viewpoint and the author's viewpoint results in irony. (In The lady's Maid by K.Mansfield, where the irony is developed by contrasting the point of view of the naive narrator to that of the author. The irony is clearly felt despite the lively and friendly tone of the maid's narrative.)
One should distinguish between the authorial tone and the character's tone.
One should distinguish between the prevailing tone of a literary work and emotional overtones, which may accompany particular scenes in the story. They all form a " tonal system"which reflects the changes of the narrator's attitude to his subject matter.
The emotional overtones generally form a "tonal unity' which means a consistency of attitude towards the events and characters. This consistency of attitude is reflected in the consistent use of language appropriate to the events and characters. The 'tonal unity' forms the prevailing tone of the story, which plays the dominant role and determines to a great extent the message of the literary work.
The narrator may establish an intimate, personal, or formal relationship with the reader. Hence he may discourse at ease and assume a familiar tone, or he may retain a relative distance and narrate in an official tone. The official tone is set up by words and idioms that have an official ring, e.g. "relevant" (for "important"), "up to the present time" (for "up to now").
The familiar tone is established by features of the spoken language, the conversational style in particular. To these features belong colloquial words and idioms.