5)Scientific Style. Its Criteria and Linguistic Peculiarities.

(Galperin)The language of science is governed by the aim of the functional style of scientific prose, which is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc. The language means used, therefore, tend to be objective, precise, and unemotional, devoid of any individuality; there is a striving for the most generalized form of expression. The main l-ge function is referential one.

The first and most noticeable feature of this style is the logical sequence of utterances with clear indication of their interrelations and interdependence.

A second and no less important feature, and perhaps the most conspicuous, is the use of terms specific to each given branch of science. The necessity to penetrate deeper into the essence of things and phenomena gives rise to new concepts, which require new words to name them. As has already been pointed out, a term will make more direct reference to something than a descriptive explanation, a non-term. Hence the rapid creation of new terms in any developing science. Further, the general vocabulary employed in scientific prose bears its direct referential meaning, that is, words used in scientific prose will always tend-to be used in their primary logical meaning. Many terms tend o be international (they have Latin or Greek origin).

A third characteristic feature of scientific style is what we may call sentence-patterns. They are of three types: postulatory, argumentative and formulative. A hypothesis, a scientific conjecture or a forecast must be based on facts already known, on facts systematized and defined. Therefore, every piece of scientific prose will begin with postulatory pronouncements which are taken as self-evident and needing no proof. The writer's own ideas are also shaped in formulae, which are the enunciation of a doctrine or theory, of a principle, an argument, the result of an investigation.

A fourth observable feature of the style of modern scientific prose, and one that strikes the eye of the reader, is the use of quotations and references. The references also have a definite compositional pattern, namely, the name of the writer referred to, the title of the work quoted, the publishing house, the place and year it was published, and the page of the excerpt quoted or referred to.

A fifth feature of scientific style, which makes-it distinguishable torn other styles, is the frequent use of foot-notes, not of the reference kind, but digressive in character. This is in full accord with the main requirement of the style, which is logical coherence of ideas expressed. Anything that seems to violate this requirement or seems not to be immediately relevant to the matter in hand, but at the same time may serve indirectly to back up the idea, will be placed in a foot-note.

The impersonality of scientific writings can also be considered a typical feature of this style. This quality is mainly revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions. In connection with the general impersonal tone of expression, it should be noted that impersonal passive constructions are frequently used with the verbs suppose, assume, presume, conclude, infer, point out, etc., as in: 'It should be pointed out', 'It must not be assumed', 'It must be emphasized', 'It can be inferred', etc. There is a noticeable difference in the syntactical design of utterances in ‘the exact sciences (mathematics, chemistry, physics, etc.) and in the humanities. The passive constructions frequently used in the scientific prose of the exact sciences are not indispensable in the humanities. This, perhaps, is due to the fact that the data and methods of investigation applied in the humanities are less objective.

The syntax is governed by logical reasoning, and there are no emotional elements. However, emotiveness is not entirely or categorically excluded from scientific prose, there may be hypotheses, pronouncements and conclusions which, being backed up by strong belief, therefore call for the use of some emotionally colored words. Our emotional reaction to facts and ideas may bear valuable information, as it itself springs from the inner qualities of these facts and ideas. We depend in no small degree upon our emotional reactions for knowledge of the outer world.

The exposition of new ideas in science must rest on a very solid foundation of previously acquired knowledge (the knowledge of terminology and the technical nomenclature of the given science).

(Arnold) Syntax and logics.

1. Complex sentences.

2. Almost all sentences are extended.

3. Simple short sentences are used to state the main idea, the most important one.

4. Different members of the sentence are extended. A lot of postpositional and prepositional attributes, or whole attributive groups (they are used to limit the notion, to make it definite and precise)

5. Many words are explained through the gerundial, participial, prepositional, and infinitive constructions (they are used to limit the notion, to make it definite and precise).

6. Cohesion is achieved through the abundant use of prepositions, and double prepositions: not merely but also, both…and, as…as. Also some archaic prepositions: thereby, therewith, and hereby.

7. The word order is usually direct. Inversion can be used to achieve logical development of the thought.

8. Division into paragraphs is very important for the logics of the whole text. Every paragraph begins with the sentence that expresses the main idea of the paragraph. To intensify the logics the following phrases are used: to sum up, as we have seen. the same result is achieved through such adverbs as finally, again, thus.

9. Logical emphasis can be expressed explicitly with the use of words (note that, I wish to emphasize, etc.)

10. Other peculiarities. The use of the 1 person plural form. “We” instead of “I” to 1) show that the group of scientists has been working at the problem and 2) to involve the reader.

11. Expressive means are not excluded. Quantity expressiveness (much less limited, very far from) is used more often than image expressiveness (it is used when new terms are coined). Expressiveness can also be expressed through explicit or implicit claim for objectivity of the addresser.

12. Lexis. Words are used in their primary meanings, or as terms, but not in their expressive meanings.

13. The main bulk of the vocabulary is neutral. However bookish words are also used. Bookish words – usually long, borrowed words, sometimes not fully assimilated (have different flections in the plural (automation-automata).

14. Morphology. The uses of nominal words, verbal words are used not so often. Nominal constructions give more generalization.

15. The use of passive constructions. (give more generalization)

16. Impersonal constructions. Formal subject “ it”

17. The terms that name abstract thing or material have plural form (steel-steels).