- •The Object and Aims of Stylistics.
- •2)The Norm of Language. Standard English.
- •3)Functional Style. Register.
- •5)Scientific Style. Its Criteria and Linguistic Peculiarities.
- •6)Lexical Peculiarities of the Scientific Style.
- •8) The Style of Official Documents. Its Criteria and Linguistic Peculiarities.
- •9)Newspaper Style. Its Criteria and Linguistic Peculiarities.
- •10) Lexical Peculiarities of the Newspaper Style.
- •11) Structural Peculiarities of the ns
- •12) Publicistic Style. Its criteria and linguistic peculiarities
- •13) Lexical Peculiarities of the ps
- •14) Structural Peculiarities of the ps
- •15) Literary-Colloquial Style / Received Standard /. Its Criteria & Linguistic Peculiarities
- •16) Lexical Peculiarities of the Literary-Colloquial Style
- •17) Structural Peculiarities of the Literary-Colloquial Style
- •18) Familiar Colloquial Style. Its Criteria & Linguistic Peculiarities
- •19) Low Colloquial Speech. Its Criteria & Linguistic Peculiarities
- •20) Stylistic Differentiation of Vocabulary
- •21. Formal English vocabulary and its stylistic functions
- •22. Informal English vocabulary and its stylistic functions
- •23. Common literary words and their stylistic functions
- •29. Poetic, Highly Literary Words, Archaisms
- •30. Neutral words
- •31. Stylistic colouring
- •32. Word and its Meaning. Denotation and Connotation. Implication. Presupposition.
- •33. Context
- •34. Stylistic context
- •35. Stylistic function
- •37. Language and speech functions.
- •38) Stylistic Differentiation of Phraseological Units. Stylistic Functioning of Phraseological Units.
- •The Clichés
- •Proverbs and Sayings
- •Epigrams
- •Allusions
- •39). Phonetic Expressive Means & Stylistic Devices.
- •40) Graphic Expressive Means.
- •41) Expressive Means & Stylistic Devices. Tropes. Figures of Speech.
- •42). The Metaphoric Group of sd: Metaphor, Simile, Personification, Epithet.
- •43) Stylistic Devices Based on the Relations of Inequality: Climax, Anticlimax, Hyperbole, Litotes.
- •44. Metonymic Group of sd: Metonymy, Synechdoche.
- •46. Stylistic Devices Based on the Relations of Identity: Synonymic Pairs, Synonymic Variation, Euphemism, Periphrasis.
- •47. Sd based on the relations of opposition: Oxymoron, Antithesis, Irony.
- •48. Inversion, Detachment, Parenthesis.
- •49. Expressive means based on the absence of the logically required components: Ellipsis, Break-in-the narrative, nominative sentences, apokoinu constructions.
- •51. Expressive means based on the Transferred use of structural meaning: Rhetoric question, Emphatic negation, reported speech.
- •52. Expressive means based on the Juxtaposition of different parts of the utterance: Parallelism, Chiasmus, Anaphora, Epiphora.
- •53. Expressive means based on the way the parts are connected: Asyndeton, polysyndeton, the Gap- Sentence Link.
- •54) Semi-marked structures
- •55) Zeugma, Semantically false chain, pun.
- •56) Enumeration, suspense.
- •57. Nouns
- •58.Pronouns
- •59. Adjectives. Verb. Adverbs
- •60) Literary Criticism and Linguistic Stylistics.
- •61) Stylistic Analysis/ from the Author’s, Reader’s point of view. Levels and Methods of Analysis. Linguostylistic analysis of imaginative literature.
- •62. Interaction of Stylistic Colouring& the Context
- •63. The use of the stylistically coloured words in a literary text
- •64. Expressiveness of word-building
- •65. Semantic Structure of the Word & Interaction of Direct & Indirect Transferred Meanings
- •66. The Use of Polysemy and Repetition
- •67.Lexical Analysis & a Literary Text Analysis. Thematic Net.
- •68. The theory of Images. The structure. Functions of images.
- •69.Syntactic Convergence.
- •70. Text: the Author’s Speech. Direct and Indirect Represented Speech. Paragraph.
- •71. Formal & Informal English.
- •Informal english:
- •72. Spoken & Written English.
- •73. Plot and Plot Structure.
- •74. System of Images. Means of Characterization.
- •75. Narrative Method.
- •76. Tonal System.
- •77. The Message of a Literary Work.
- •78. Style in Language.
41) Expressive Means & Stylistic Devices. Tropes. Figures of Speech.
Expressive means of the language - are those phonetic, morphological, word- building, lexical, phraseological, syntactical forms which exist in language as a system for the purpose of logical & emotional intensification of the utterance.
Phonetic -is the most powerful expressive means (onomatopoeia, alliteration, rhythm, rhyme, assonance)
Morphological expressive means (shall with 2/3d person, demonstrative pronouns)
Word-building expressive means (diminutive suffices, neologisms, nonce- words)
Lexical expressive means (interjections, epithets, slang, vulgar words, archaic, poetic)
Phraseological units - make speech emphatic
Syntactical expressive means (various constructions: inversion)
Stylistic devices - do not exist in the language as the units ready for use. They are abstract patterns of language filled with a definite content when used in speech. The stylistic effect of this/that device is based upon the clash of 2 meanings of a lexical unit - dictionary & contextual.
Expressive means - greater degree of predictability than of SD
SD - carry greater degree of information & demand effort to decode their meaning
Trope - a SD based on transference of meanings; in them word/word combination is used in transferred meaning. The new meaning is realized as a result of interaction of 2 & more meanings:
direct/indirect
dictionary/contextual
logical/emotive.
Tropes may be based on similarity, analogy, contrast, inequality, contiguity. Tropes are figures of sense, thoughts. They exist in paradigmatic level. They are opposed to figures of speech.
Figures of speech - syntagmatic by nature, they become expressive due to arrangement/rearrangement in chain of speech, they emphasize, intensify certain meaning.
42). The Metaphoric Group of sd: Metaphor, Simile, Personification, Epithet.
In the basis of the metaphoric group lies the principle of identification of two objects.
Simile – is an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to two different classes. The one which is compared is called the tenor, the one with which it is compared, is called the vehicle. The t and the v form the two semantic poles of the s, which are connected by one of the following link words “like”, “as”, “as though”, “as like”, “such as”, “as...as”,We should distinguish between two words: ‘comparison’ and ‘simile’. Objects belonging to the same class are likened in a simple com-n, while in a s. we deal with the likening of objects belonging to two different classes. “She is like her mother” is a simple com, used to state an evident fact. “She is like a rose” is a s. used for purposes of expressive evaluation, emotive explanation, highly individual description. In a simile two objects are compared on the grounds of similarity of some quality. “His muscles are hard as rock”.
S. may be also introduced by lexical means indicating likeness between compared objects. ‘She had a strange resemblance to a captive owl’. (G.) Possible are structural variations of s:
1. The sign of com. of two objects is directly mentioned. ‘He is as beautiful as a weathercock’. (O.W.)
2. The character of resemblance is only meant. My heart is like a singing bird.
3. The image suggested by the simile is not quite clear and the author gives an explanation. ‘He had a face like a choir-boy’s – but a choir-boy suddenly overwhelmed by middle age; chubby, pretty doll-like, but withered’. Functions:
with a concrete and familiar thing, author makes his description clearer and more picturesque.
making a narrative more concrete and definite, the simile helps the author to reveal feelings of his own as well.
A s., often repeated, becomes trite and adds to the stock of language phraseology -phraseological units. “sly as a fox as weak as a cat as bold as brass as good as gold”, often used in the direct speech of characters, thus individualizing their speech; S-s in which the link between the t and the v is expressed by notional verbs such as “to resemble”, “to seem”, “to recollect”, “to appear”, etc. are called disguised, because the realization of the comparison is somewhat suspended, as the likeness between the objects seems less evident.
Metaphor. The SD based on the principle of identification of two objects; It is the interaction between the logical and contextual-logical meanings of a word which is based on a likeness between objects and implies analogy and comparison between them.M can be embodied in all meaningful parts of speech: n, v, adj, adv.
n. The machine sitting at the desk was no longer a man; it was a busy New York broker. (O.H.)
v. In the slanting beams that streamed through the open window, the dust danced and was golden.
adv. The leaves fell sorrowfully.
adj. The pillow remained sleepless. M-s expressed by ad and adj are called metaphoric epithets.
Thus m-s which are absolutely unexpected are called genuine m. Those which are constantly used in speech and therefore are often fixed in dictionaries as expressive means of language are trite (dead, traditional) m -a ray of hope, floods of tears, a flight of imagination. To prolong the image author adds a number of other images, but all these additional images are linked with the central image – sustained/prolonged metaphors.
The stylistic function -by evoking images and suggesting analogies it makes the author’s thought more concrete, definite and clear and at the same it reveals the author’s emotional attitude towards what is said.
3. Epithet - a SD showing the purely individual emotional attitude of the writer/speaker towards the object mentioned. Shining serenely as some immeasurable mirror beneath the smiling face of the heaven, the solitary ocean lay in unrippled silence. (Fr. Bullen). E-s can be classified from the point of view of their compositional structure: simple (ordinary adjectives or adverbs), compound(like compound adjectives, e.g. heart-burning sight, cloud-shapen giant), and phrase epithets(into one language unit as much information as possible ‘So think first of her, but not in the ‘I love you so that nothing will induce me to marry you’ fashion. (Galsworhty).
Reversed -based on the illogical relations between the modifier and the modified-the shadow of a smile, a devil of a job. From the viewpoint of their expressive power e-s can be regarded as those transferring the quality of one object to its closest neighbour. e.g. ‘He was a thin, wiry man with a tobacco-stained smile- transferred e. A new feature is revealed by a metaphoric e, which presents a metaphor within an e, expressed by adj and adv: whispering streams. Variability and flexibility make it one of the most widely and frequently used stylistic device.
4. Personification - is attributing human properties to lifeless objects – mostly to abstract notions, such as thoughts, actions, intentions, emotions, seasons of the year, etc.
The stylistic functions:(In poetry and fiction) to help to visualize the description, to impart dynamic force to it or to reproduce the particular mood of the viewer. “the face of London”, or “the pain of the ocean”.
Another formal device of p. is capitalization of the word which expresses a personified notion: If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster To chase the glowing Hours with flying feet. (Byron)