§ 1. TRANSLATION STUDIES The second half of the 20^th century has seen the in-depth study of translation, which is sometimes called Theory of Translation, Science of Translation, Translation Linguistics, or even Translatology.  The main concern of translation theory is to determine appropriate translation methods for the widest possible range of texts³ and to give insight into the translation process, into the relations between thought and language, culture and speech. There are several aspects of this branch of linguistics: 

• General theory of translation, whose object is general notions typical of translation from any language.

• Specific (or partial, in terms of Holmes) theory of translation that deals with the regularities of translation characteristic of particular languages - for example, translation from English into Russian and vice versa. 

• Special (partial) theory of translation that pays attention to texts of various registers and genres.

• There are two terms corresponding to the Russian word “перевод”: translation and interpretation. Those who discriminate between the terms refer the term ‘translation’ to the written text, and the term ‘interpretation’ to oral speech.

§1. Translating the infinitive

The challenges in translating the English infinitive are due to its specific forms, functions and structures.

Unlike Russian, the English language possesses a number of forms of the same verb: the Simple infinitive, the Continuous infinitive, the Perfect infinitive, the Perfect Continuous infinitive. The first two forms indicate actions simultaneous with that of the main predicate: Я рада, что вижу вас. – I am glad to see you. or the future actions: Я рада, что пойду туда. – I am glad to go there. The Perfect and Perfect Continuous infinitives denote actions prior to that of the predicate: Я рада, что увидела вас. - I am glad to have seen you. Я рада, что читала эту книгу. – I am glad to have been reading the book. On the other hand, the difference between the Simple / Perfect and Continuous / Perfect Continuous forms of the infinitive lies in expressing either a fact (incomplete or completed) or a process, respectively:

рад, что делаю (каждый день) – glad to do (every day)

рад, что делаю сейчас – glad to be doing

рад, что буду делать – glad to do

рад сделать (что сделаю) – glad to do

рад, что сделал – glad to have done

рад, что делал – glad to have been doing.

The actual meaning of the infinitive can be determined by the context only.

English infinitive functions can also be a stumbling block for a fledgling translator. The attributive function of the infinitive can cause difficulties in translation due to its modal meaning: This is a book to read. – Вот книга, которую можно (нужно) почитать..

The function of some adverbial infinitives presents difficulties in translation. For example, the English infinitive can be used to denote a subsequent event or a parallel action, which is often confused with the infinitive of purpose: Iron combines with oxygen to form rust. – Железо соединяется с кислородом и образует ржавчину

When translating the infinitive of result, a translator should take care to render properly the connotation of the construction: the infinitive with too implies a negative meaning, while the infinitive with enough suggests a positive one: She is too old to go there. – Она слишком стара и не поедет туда. She is old enough to go there. – Она достаточно взрослая и может поехать туда.

Infinitive constructions are the most challenging problem. They are usually translated by a clause. For instance, the Complex Object construction: We expect them to pay us by Friday. – Мы ожидаем, что нам дадут зарплату к пятнице.

§3. Translating the participle

The difference between the English and Russian participle concerns its form and usage.

As for the form, the English participle exists in two special forms – the Present Participle and the Past Participle, the former varying into Simple and Perfect, active and passive forms. The Russian participle is altered according to time and voice distinctions. Furthermore, there is a form, called the adverbial participle (деепричастие) which varies by the tense.

For example, The main problem is rising prices. – Основная проблема – растущие цены.

Rising crime has driven many families out of downtown areas. – Возросший уровень преступности вынудил многие семьи уехать из центра города.

Raised taxes is no news for us. – Увеличенные налоги – для нас не новость.

Risen by 10% every year, salaries did not keep up with prices. – Возраставшие ежегодно на 10% зарплаты, тем не менее, не поспевали за ценами.

The English participle can be translated not only by the Russian participle or adverbial participle, but also by the clause: The cat shuts its eyes when stealing cream. – Когда кошка крадет сливки, она закрывает глаза. In this case, the English sentence is more laconic, since in Russian the subject is repeated twice, whereas in English only once: Если человек нужен, его ищут. – When wanted, a man is looked for.

Sometimes, to translate a participle, it is necessary to transform the entire sentence: When seen from this angle, the picture looks rather good. - Если смотреть на картину с этой стороны, она кажется достаточно интересной. When shot, Mrs. Doran was apparently taking a walk. – Миссис Доран была убита, очевидно, во время прогулки.125

§1. TRANSLATING PERSONAL PRONOUNS One of the most difficult problems is translating pronouns of the second person. The modern English you corresponds to the Russian ты and вы, though Russian ты also corresponds to the English archaic thou, now used only in poetry. To select a proper equivalent to the English you, a translator should clearly understand the function of this pronoun in the sentence. Sometimes the meaning of ты as an indicator of a person’s low social status can be derogatory. In Russian-to-English translation it can be compensated by expressive means. For instance, Да вечно ли ты мне дорогу перебегать будешь? – Damn it… you’re not always going to stand in my way, are you?  Another function of the Russian ты is to demonstrate friendly or intimate relations between the speakers: Я ведь думала, что ты там… у дяди! – You see, darling, I thought you were at your uncle’s

§2. TRANSLATING POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

Unlike Russian, English possessive pronouns are normally used with nouns denoting a body part or some personal thing. They are usually not translated into Russian: Mary broke her leg when she was skiing in Austria. – Мэри сломала ногу, когда каталась на лыжах в Австрии.

§3. TRANSLATING RELATIVE PRONOUNS When using pronouns, it is necessary to avoid ambiguity in sentences. This ambiguity can be caused by the inappropriate position or form of the pronoun: *Вследствиеинтенсивного лова в Охотском море возникла угроза исчезновения минтая, которая является наиболее ценной рыбой в этом море. The sentence is agrammatical because of the incorrect form of the pronoun которая following the masculine and feminine nouns. The relative pronoun here should have been used in the masculine gender, since it refers logically to the word минтая.

§4. TRANSLATING THE PRONOUN ONE

A sentence with the English impersonal pronoun one can be rendered by a Russian impersonal sentence: One can easily understand peoples’ aspirations for world peace. –Легко можно понять стремление народов к миру во всем мире.¹³¹

§5. TRANSLATING THE PRONOUNS КАЖДЫЙ / ВСЕ These pronouns correspond to English each and every. But they are not interchangeable in all cases.  The pronoun every makes reference to a number of three or more. It correlates with unknown persons or things and has a collective reference. Therefore, every is usually translated by the Russian pronoun все. Each refers to a number of two and more. It stresses the idea of discreteness and refers to individuals already specified.¹³² This can be illustrated by the following sentences:  ^ Все дома на той улице были выкрашены в белый цвет. Они входили по очереди в каждый дом. – Every house in the street was painted white. They went toeach house in turn.