- •1. Lexicology as a branch of linguistics, its aims and significance. Links with other branches of linguistics. Synchronic vs diachronic approaches to the language study.
- •2. Synchronic and diachronic approaches to the study of language
- •3. Etymological survey of the English language. Native and borrowed words. Some basic notions
- •4. Words of native origin in Modern English. Semantic and stylistic characteristics of native words. Word-forming ability of native words.
- •5. Borrowings. Translation loans. Semantic loans
- •6. Source of borrowing and the origin of borrowing
- •7. Types and sources of borrowings. Etymological doublets
- •8.. Assimilation of borrowings. Its types and degrees.
- •9. Greek borrowings in English. Criteria of Greek borrowings
- •10. Latin borrowings in English. Periods of borrowings from Latin
- •11. Norman-French element in the English vocabulary system. Periods of borrowings from French.
- •Ic and uc analysis
- •14. 14.Types of morphemes
- •17. Derivational and morphemic levels of analysis
- •19.Word formation in Modern English
- •21.Productive ways of word-formation in Modern English. Principal ways of word-derivation
- •25. Clipping as a way of word formation. Types of clippings
- •26. Conversion. Typical semantic relations within a conversion pair
- •27. Derivation as a word-formative process in English
- •Productivity
- •28. Shortening. Types of shortening
- •29. Word composition. Types of compound words. Different criteria for classification
- •30. Semasiology. Types of meaning. Meaning of a morpheme
- •32. Connotative and denotative meaning. Types of connotative meaning
- •34.Synchronic and diachronic approaches to polysemy
- •35. Semantic structure of a word. Word paradigm.
- •38. Change of word meaning. Figures of speech. Metaphor and metonymy.
- •5. Stylistic synonyms.
- •§ 1. Lexical Valency (Collocability)
- •§ 2. Grammatical Valency
- •65. Problems of lexicography
25. Clipping as a way of word formation. Types of clippings
In linguistics, clipping is the word formation process which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts (Marchand: 1969). Clipping is also known as "truncation" or "shortening."[1]
According to Marchand (1969),[2] clippings are not coined as words belonging to the standard vocabulary of a language. They originate as terms of a special group like schools, army, police, the medical profession, etc., in the intimacy of a milieu where a hint is sufficient to indicate the whole. For example, exam(ination), math(ematics), and lab(oratory) originated in school slang; spec(ulation) and tick(et = credit) in stock-exchange slang; and vet(eran) and cap(tain) in army slang. While clipping terms of some influential groups can pass into common usage, becoming part of Standard English, clippings of a socially unimportant class or group will remain group slang. Clipping mainly consists of the following types:
Back clipping Fore-clipping Middle clipping Complex clipping
Back clippingBack clipping is the most common type, in which the beginning is retained. The unclipped original may be either a simple or a composite. Examples are: ad (advertisement), cable (cablegram), doc (doctor), exam (examination), fax (facsimile), gas (gasoline), gym (gymnastics, gymnasium), memo (memorandum), mutt (muttonhead), pub (public house), pop (popular music).
Fore-clippingFore-clipping retains the final part. Examples: chute (parachute), coon (raccoon), gator (alligator), phone (telephone), pike (turnpike), varsity (university).
Middle clippingIn middle clipping, the middle of the word is retained. Examples are: flu (influenza), fridge (refrigerator), jams or jammies (pajamas/pyjamas), polly (apollinaris), shrink (head-shrinker), tec (detective).
Complex clippingClipped forms are also used in compounds. One part of the original compound most often remains intact. Examples are: cablegram (cable telegram), op art (optical art), org-man (organization man), linocut (linoleum cut). Sometimes both halves of a compound are clipped as in navicert (navigation certificate). In these cases it is difficult to know whether the resultant formation should be treated as a clipping or as a blend, for the border between the two types is not always clear. According to Bauer (1983),[3] the easiest way to draw the distinction is to say that those forms which retain compound stress are clipped compounds, whereas those that take simple word stress are not. By this criterion bodbiz, Chicom, Comsymp, Intelsat, midcult, pro-am, photo op, sci-fi, and sitcom are all compounds made of clippings.
26. Conversion. Typical semantic relations within a conversion pair
Conversion is a highly productive way of coining new words in Modern English. Conversion is sometimes referred to as an affixless way of word-building, a process of making a new word from some existing root word by changing the category of a part of speech without changing the morphemic shape of the original root-word. The transposition of word from one part of speech into another brings about changes of the paradigm.
Conversion is not only highly productive but also a particularly English way of word-building. It is explained by the analytical structure of Modern English and by the simplicity of paradigms of English parts of speech. A great number of one-syllable words is another factor that facilitates conversion.
Typical semantic relations within a converted pair
I. Verbs converted from noun (denominal verbs) denote:
1. action characteristic of the object ape (n) - to ape (v)
butcher (n) - to butcher (v)
instrumental use of the object screw (n) - to screw (v) whip (n) - to whip (v)
acquisition or addition of the object fish (n) - to fish (v)
II.Nouns converted from verbs (deverbal nouns) denote:
1. instance of the action
to jump (v) -jump (n)
to move (v) - move (n)
2. agent of the action
to help (v) - help (n)
to switch (v) - switch (n)
3. place of action
to drive (v) - drive (n)
to walk (v) - walk (n) 4.object or result of the action
to peel (v) - peel (n)
to find (v) - find (n)