2.4. Inherent and adherent connotation

The connotative component of meaning can be occasional or usual (inherent or adherent). Connotation can be inherent to the semantic structure of the lexeme – the words on their own imply positive or negative appreciation. Names like Napoleon, Bill Gates or Judas cannot be uttered without invoking a world of associations. The words like drunk, murder, pervert call up horrible images that their dictionary definitions may simply not suggest. The same is true about associations which the words angel, faithful, beautiful, super can awoke.

An inherent connotation can change the basic meaning of words and that of the words it touches. For example white can suggest purity, innocence (the white wedding dress), lion – courage, Paris – love and romance, snake – deviousness, paparazzi – intrusion into one’s private life).

Sometimes the words can have only adherent (occasional) connotation acquired in a certain context. We know that words chance their meaning depending on where they are placed. The word ‘great’ seems quite a clear word to understand, but its meaning, the images and ideas it creates in the mind change drastically when you speak of a ‘great man’, great river’ or a ‘great elephant’. When notional words are used metaphorically about something that is pleasant or unpleasant for the speaker, we deal with adherent connotation. This metaphorical meaning is lexicalized, it is a set phrase – bear (a big man who is rough and bad tempered), beast (someone who is cruel or unpleasant or something that is difficult to deal with), vulture (someone who uses other people’s troubles for their own advantage),

scroodge (someone who hates spending money - ), scarecrow (an object made to look like a person that a farmer puts in a field to frighten birds).

2.5. Pragmatic meaning

The term ‘pragmatics’ is attributed to Morris (1938:6), who defined pragmatics as the study of “the relation of signs to the interpreters”. Though the original concept of pragmatics has changed within the framework of linguistic exploration, its impact is noticeable in the interpretation of this category in linguistics. The term refers to a brunch of linguistics that originated from different linguistic, philosophical, logical, rhetorical, semiotic and sociological traditions. Its subject matter is often defined as the study of the intended speaker’s meaning. Pragmatics overlaps with semantics, stylistics, and sociolinguistics and this term also denotes linguistic phenomena studied by the discipline in question.

The pragmatic aspect of lexical meaning is the part of meaning that conveys information on the situation of communication. According to Apresyan (1988), [Apresjan, J.D. (1988)

Pragmatičeskaja informacija dla tolkovogo slovarja. In Problemy Intensional’nosti: sbornik nauchnykh trudov (pp. 7-44). Moscow] pragmatic specifications of meaning deal with the representation of the speaker’s attitude to reality, the message and/or the interlocutor, which is encoded in linguistic signs as units of language system, cf. the adjectives famous and notorious.

Notorious and famous both mean ‘very well-known (to the general public); but the former is unfavorable, the latter favorable; thus, ‘a famous writer’ but a ‘notorious criminal’. Notorious, in short, is famous in a bad way – for crime or excessive vice’. The cliché it is notorious properly means no more than ‘it is common knowledge that…’, but current usage invests it with pejorative connotation. Note, however, that a person may in his or her lifetime be so notorious that after his/her death s/he becomes famous: Charley Peace, the murderer” (UA).

The definition contains the pragmatically-relevant semantic specification of famous and notorious that determines their lexical-semantic valance with nouns denoting social roles and pragmatic specification of famous and notorious, the letter being pejorative. The meaning of the phrase it is notorious that also contains pragmatic aspect.

Kipfer (1984:41) [Kipfer, B.A. (1984). Workbook on Lexicography. [ Vol.8. Exter Linguistic Studies.] (p.p. 1 -172). Exter: University of Exter.] Work maintains that pragmatics refers to language varieties, their settings in time and space, and their relationships with speakers, audiences, and subject matter. In dictionaries, this kind of information is presented in the form of usage labels – lexicographic indicators that are usually presented by way of abbreviations, as slang, rare, Scot, etc. Usage labels are intended to specify the limitation of use of the lexical items according to time, place, and/or circumstances of communicative interaction.[Kipfer, B.A. (1984). Methods of ordering senses within entries. In R> R> K. Hartman (Ed.), LEXeter ’83 Proceedings. Papers from the International Conference on Lexicography in Exeter, 9-12 September 1983 (pp.131 -140). Exeter: University of Exeter.

According to Landau (1989:175), the most common kinds of usage information (i.e. pragmatic meaning of words) designated by usage labels, are as follows:

1. currency or temporality: archaic, obsolete;

2. frequency of use: rare;

3. geographic variation: AmE, BrE, etc.

4. specialized terminology: chemistry, astronomy, etc.

5. restricted or taboo usage: vulgar, obscene;

6. insult: offensive;

7. slang: slang;

8. style, functional variety, or register: informal, colloquial, literary, poetic, humorous;

9. status label: non-standard, substandard, illiterate.

The pragmatic aspect of meaning emphasizes the mode of communication (writing vs. speech) and style (formal vs. informal) as well as the desired effect on the addressee. Pragmatic meaning often contains the information on the tenor of discourse. The tenors of discourse reflect how the addresser (the speaker or the writer) interacts with the addressee (the listener or the reader). Tenors reflect social or family roles of the participants of communication. A mother will talk in a different way a) with her child b) about her children. The situation may involve a stranger talking to a stranger, an employer interviewing an employee-to-be, two teenage friends talking about their matters, student being examined by the professor, etc.

Pragmatic meaning may also contain information about the social system of the given language community, its ideology, religion, system of norms, regulations and customs, everything which Zgusta called ‘cultural setting’. The newly coined words chairperson, policeperson, spokesperson emerged due to the norms of ‘politically correct language’ – language, behavior, and attitudes that are politically correct are carefully chosen so that they do not offend or insult anyone.

To summarize we may define as pragmatic a meaning that expresses a discursive function, an aspect of speech act, or a communicative function.

TASK 3.

State the difference in the pragmatic aspect of lexical meaning in the following pairs of words. Pay attention to the register of communication and define the possible participants and their role on which tenors of discourse are based.

1. Quality – thing: There are many qualities in his character that appeal to me. The thing I like about Susan is the way she copes with her troubles.

2. Start – commence: We plan to start the project next week. Your first evaluation will be six months after you commence employment.

3. Girl – lassie: She is happily married with two children – a boy and a girl. The lad had never seen such a bony lassie.

4. Fat – overweight: Are you suggesting I’m too fat? The check up showed that Sally was fifteen pounds overweight.

5. Kid – infant: Keep an eye on the kids while I water the flowers. An infant’s skin is very sensitive.

6. Physician – doctor: A committee of three physicians was appointed to consider the case. Can anybody call the doctor?

7. Joke – gag: Everyone laughed except Mr. Broadbent who didn’t get the joke. It was a bit of a running gag in the show.