- •Borrowings. Origin of borrowings. Source of borrowings. Translation Loans. Semantic Loans.
- •2.Assimilation of borrowings and its types and degrees.
- •3.Latin borrowings. Periods of borrowings from Latin.
- •5.Scandinavian loan-words in Modern English. Celtic elements in the English Vocabulary.
- •8. The Norman-French element in the English vocabulary system.
- •9. Definition of morpheme
- •12.Conversion. Different views on conversion.
- •11.Word-composition. Types of compound words. Different criteria for classification.
- •10.Productive ways of word formation. Principal ways of word derivation.
- •13. Shortening. Types of shortening.
- •Definition of meaning of a word. Types of meaning. Referential and functional approaches to meaning.
- •Polysemy. Semantic Structure of the Word
- •Synchronic and diachronic approaches to polysemy.
- •Change of word meaning.
- •Change of the denotational component of the word meaning. Extension and narrowing.
- •20. Change of the connotational component of the word meaning. Elevation and degradation of meaning.
- •21. The theory of semantic field. Thematic groups.
- •22. Synonyms. Types of synonyms. Sources of synonyms.
- •23. Antonyms. Definition. Morphological and semantic classification of antonyms.
- •24. Neologisms. Their place in the vocabulary system of the English language.
- •25.Free word-groups. Definition. Classification.
- •26. Valency. Grammatical and lexical valency.
- •27. Definition of phraseological units. Characteristic features of phraseological units. V. Vinogradov’s conception of phraseological units.
- •28. Different approaches to the classification of phraseological units: semantic, functional, contextual. A.V. Coonin’s concept of phraseological units.
- •29. Chief characteristic features of American English.
- •30. Types of dictionaries. History of English and American Lexicography.
27. Definition of phraseological units. Characteristic features of phraseological units. V. Vinogradov’s conception of phraseological units.
Phraseological units (idioms) are stable word-groups characterized by a completely or partially transferred meaning, lack of motivation. |
Word equivalents are certain word groups, their ability to function in speech as single words. |
The essential features of phraseological units are:
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28. Different approaches to the classification of phraseological units: semantic, functional, contextual. A.V. Coonin’s concept of phraseological units.
Classification based on the semantic principle:
Fusions(completely non-motivated idiomatic word-groups: to bell the cat ("to take a risk for the good of others"), a white elephant (" a present one can't get rid of), once in a blue moon ("hardly at all" or "hardly ever"))
Half- fusions(stable word-groups in which the leading component is literal, while the rest of the group is idiomatically fused:
to talk through one's hat ("to talk foolishly"), to buy something for a song ("to buy smth. very cheaply"), to pay through the nose ("to pay unreasonably much"), to rain cats and dogs ("to rain heavily")
Unities(metaphorically motivated idioms:to make a mountain out of a molehill ("to become excited about trifles"))
Half-unities(binary word-groups in which one of the components is literal, while the other is phraseologically bound (the so-termed phrasemes):black frost ("frost without ice or snow")
Phraseological collocations(-groups with the components whose combinative power (valency) is strictly limited: to make friends (but not * to do friends or * to make comrades).
Phraseological expressions(proverbs, sayings and aphoristic familiar quotations:
Birds of a feather flock together (Лисий лисого бачить здалека)
The Koonin’s classification is the latest outstanding achievement in the Russian theory of phraseology. The classification is based on the combined structural - semantic principle and it also considers the quotient of stability of phraseological units.
I. Nominative phraseological units - are represented by word - groups, including the ones with one meaningful word, and coordinative phrases of the type wear and tear, well and good.
II. Nominative - communicative phraseological units - include word - groups, of the type to break the ice - the ice is broken, that is, verbal word - groups which are transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the Passive Voice.
III. Phraseological units - which are neither nominative nor communicative include interjectional word - groups.
IV. Communicative phraseological units - are represented by proverbs and sayings.
29. Chief characteristic features of American English.
Fowler in Modern English Usage (1926) did not include an entry on American English and said little on the subject, although he cast occasional aspersions on so-called 'undesirable aliens' (such as belittle). Since then attitudes to American English have hardened, and the prevailing view among some who seek (or claim) to preserve standards in English is often hostile. However, it is linguistically misconceived and historically unjustified to regard the American influence on English as necessarily harmful; both varieties have been enriched by contact with each other and with other varieties, including Australian English and South African English. It should also be remembered that Canadian English (influenced by French) is a valid variety, and the boundaries between the Englishes of Canada and the USA are becoming much harder to draw precisely.
American English differs from British English in several important ways, in matters of vocabulary, spelling and inflection, idiom, grammar, pronunciation, and punctuation. Some of the more significant differences are due to uses that disappeared in British English but survived in American English (such as the use of gotten as a past participle of get, and the use of theater and other spellings in -er), and others are due to developments in American English after it went its own way.