3. Changes in English Vocabulary

Vocabulary immediately reacts to all the changes in the life of people, to the progress of science, culture, technology, etc. All this is reflected in the growth and development of vocabulary. Whenever a new notion comes into being, a new meaning is developed in an existing word (e.g., web), or a new expression is formed (e.g., Internet, hacker, space shuttle, cybernetics), or a new word is borrowed from another language (e.g., sputnik).

There are four ways of enlarging and enriching vocabulary: 1) borrowing, 2) word-building, 3) semantic change, 4) phraseologisation.

But changes in vocabulary do not only mean adding up new words and expressions. Words are not only being born, they can also grow old and disappear (e.g., OE hap meaning «chance» is now non-existent). Some of the meanings of polysemantic words can drop out, too (e.g., the meaning «reap» of the verb to earn has died out), while other meanings survive throughout centuries (e.g., the meaning of «part of the body» of the noun hand). Some words have changed their meanings beyond recognition (e.g., marshal in OE meant «a servant in charge of horses»). Many words, remaining part of the lexico-semantic system, have been shifted to very limited spheres of usage (e.g., dale, morn, thou are now archaisms which can be used in poetry or in historical novels.)

So, changes in the lexico-semantic system of language have both qualitative and quantitative character and are marked by two opposed tendencies – to add up and to drop out its elements. The interplay between new elements of the vocabulary and its outdated ones is seen in the contrast between neologisms and archaisms.

a) Neologisms

A neologism is a newly coined word, or a phrase, or a new meaning for an existing word, or a word borrowed from another language, which is felt by the speakers as something new. The criterion of novelty is rather vague (are the terms multi-media and on-line new?). But, conventionally, a lexical unit is considered to be a neologism until it is entered into general dictionaries. From this viewpoint, subsatellite («a small satellite launched from a large one») is a neologism while booster («a carrier rocket») is not any longer. But it is certainly very subjective, as it often depends on how promptly lexicographers work.

For extralinguistic reasons, neologisms are the most frequent in terminological systems, e.g., that of computer technology (computerize, computerizable, computerman, computernik, computerite, computery, etc.); medicine (AIDS, HIV, ARC). Here also belong socio-political terms naming the realities of political life, e.g., summit (with summitology, summitry), soft-liner, superwar. Many of political terms are rather short-lived and pass out of general use together with changes in political situations, e.g., Reaganomics, Reagangate, perestroika, glasnost.

In colloquial English, especially in the sphere of slang tending to novelty and freshness of expression, neologisms appear in great numbers, e.g., subteens («children of 10-12»), smoking gun («direct evidence»). Neologisms are numerous in slang in such semantic groups as names of persons (yuppie, yeepie, dockney, mockney, dinky), drugs (wheels, mule, acid, to do «to take drugs»), music (house, beach music, speed metal), style of life (taste maker, upscale, downscale), crime and police, cars, money, love, etc.

The ways of forming neologisms are as follows:

I. Word-building

1) affixation (e.g., cagey, fattyism);

2) conversion (e.g., a burn, to air);

3) composition (e.g., cancer-stick «a cigarette», moneyman);

4) shortening (e.g., muso, demo);

5) blending (e.g., transceiver, clothesaholic, agitpop);

6) back formation (e.g., to automate).

II. Semantic change (e.g., box «TV set», mule «drug trafficker», light up «destroy a target»).

III. Borrowing (e.g., perestroika, jihad, intifada)

IV. Phraseology, (e.g., a bedroom community «part of the city whose residents work wholly in another part of it or in a different city»).

b) Archaisms

Some of the words can grow old and drop out of language. It may happen due to both extra-linguistic and linguistic causes.

The extra-linguistic factor is the disappearance of certain things and notions having no more value for the nation. Words denoting notions pass out of general use and become historisms. In modern English they may be used to describe the mode of life of the corresponding epoch. Here belong, for example, the following names of ancient weapons: bodkin, bow, halberd, sword, sabre, shield.

Among the linguistic factors, synonymic competition of words expressing the same notion is among the most important. As a result, one of these words gradually turns into an archaism. It is usually an older native word which has to compete with a newer borrowing and which little by little acquires a lofty, poetic coloring due to its association with the past. Here belong dale, ere, morn, brine, slay, maiden, etc. Some archaic grammatical forms belong here, too: thou, thee, thy; quoth; asketh. All these words and word-forms comprise the group of archaisms.

Turning into an archaism includes three stages:

1. Obsolescent words. These words are felt as old-fashioned but are still in use in the speech of the older generation arid in literary works, e.g., fraught with «filled with», kin «relatives», to swoon «to faint», to tarry «to linger»;

2. Archaisms proper. These words are recognizable for most of the speakers, they are not used anywhere except in literary works. Here belong methinks «It seems to me», nay «no», verily «truly», nether «lower», etc.;

3. Obsolete words which are hardly understandable for any of the speakers, e.g., lozel «a worthless fellow».