Keeping Trees Healthy and Safe

Many trees have life spans that any human would envy. But in residential areas, these impressive life spans are often cut short by the rigors of the urban environment. With attention to a few key management practices, this doesn’t have to be so.

Proper watering is critical when transplanting a new tree. Water regularly, but be careful not to overwater. After a tree is established, normal rainfall usually will provide an adequate amount of water. But you still need to water during droughts or extended dry periods during the summer.

Once a tree is established, apply up to 6 pounds of nitrogen per 1,000 square feet over the tree’s rooting area to maximize tree growth. Every 3 years, apply 3.6 pounds of phosphorus and 6 pounds of potash per 1,000 square feet. Apply fertilizer to an area that extends several feet beyond the canopy drip line.

Be on the lookout for warning signs that may indicate your tree is under stress. For example, are the leaves off-color, undersized, withering, or showing dark blotches? Are many of them missing?

Are the branches dying at the ends? How much have the tips of the branches grown in the past year? You can tell by looking at the ‘bud scale scars.’ In general, twig growth on most trees should be at least 9 inches.

Are there cracks or holes in the tree trunk or cankers (localized dead areas) on the bark? Do you see insect activity or signs of insect presence: curled leaves, chewed leaves, missing leaves, holes in branches, buds that don’t sprout, webs, sawdust, holes in the trunks, or galls, which are tumors that form on the plant tissue?

Has a storm broken limbs or done any other damage? And is the soil compacted, or packed down? Compaction, one of the major killers of trees in urban areas, reduces the availability of air in the soil, suffocating tree roots.

Some of these warning signs can have a number of causes, so you may need to call in a professional arborist to determine the problem. For instance, yellowed, undersized, or withered leaves can be caused by diseases, insects, inadequate moisture, or lack of nutrients.

Topic 2: theory of interpretation

З того часу, як винайшли мову, люди не можуть домовитись між собою.

Генрік Яґодзинський

2.1. Background of interpretation theory (it)

One of the experienced and well known Russian interpreters Chuzhakin A., who contributed a lot into interpretation theory, practice and universal interpretation note-taking said, „Якщо ви вважаєте, що вчитесь перекладати, то помиляєтесь – ви вчитесь говорити російською мовою!“. He also gave the definition of oral translation, „Усний переклад – це пошук простих рішень складних завдань в складних ситуаціях, що відбувається зі швидкістю думки“.

In his book “The Interpreter’s Handbook” [16:1] Jean Herbert writes, “The profession of interpreter is a very old one, which came into existence when the first contacts were established between human groups speaking different languages. It is also one of the finest of professions, since its aim is to draw men together and enable them to establish a closer understanding of one another. By eliminating the language barrier that separates them, the interpreter directly ushers men into the thoughts of others, and thus performs the function of an intermediary, enabling their minds to achieve intellectual communion.”

As long ago as one and a half million years ago in the primitive informational society in order to communicate with different groups of people there was a need in bright and sharp people, understandable people with excellent memory, high language skills, capable of expressing their thoughts clearly, understand their interlocutor and interpret his speech into his own dialect or language. Therefore we may guess that a primitive type of interpretation had appeared long before the written language originated, and we may claim that interpreter is one of the most ancient professions.

Theorist of interpretation V. Komissarov in his book „Сучасне перекладознавство” cites some interesting data, “Численні факти свідчать про те, що [усний] переклад має тисячолітню історію. У древньому Вавилоні й Ассирії існували групи перекладачів, що доводили повеління властителів до відома підкорених народів. Взагалі без перекладачів було б неможливим існування древніх імперій, що виникали в результаті завоювань багатьох країн, населених різномовними народами. А в древньому Єгипті вже була спеціальна школа, що готувала перекладачів для контактів з сусідами“.

There is a story in the Bible which tells about Joseph and his brothers, who were very envious of Joseph for his multicolor coat presented by his father who loved his son more than any other child born from other women. So, brothers sold him into slavery in Egypt, where later on he became an honorable figure at the court of Egyptian pharaoh. Some time later in the homeland of Joseph disastrous famine happened, and his brothers left for Egypt to get some bread. They did not recognize Joseph when first saw him, and he did not disclose himself either and was talking with them through an interpreter.

The apostle Paul (I Cor. 24:27-28) realized the importance of this activity when he advised the Corinthians to have recourse to interpreters, if their gatherings comprised devotees speaking two or three different languages; and he added that, if there were no interpreters among them, it would be preferable that no one should speak, “If any man speak in an unknown tongue, let it be by two, or at the most by three, and that by course; and let one interpret. But if there be no interpreter, let him keep silence…” [19:265-266].

Such records about interpretation and interpreters can be found in many old sources.

By V. Komissarov’s hypothesis women were the first trainers and specialists in the sphere of language and dialect study, as being captured or given in marriage to the representative of another pride they willy-nilly learned the language of their husband. In fact they assumed the obligation of an interpreter on themselves in the process of communication and mutual understanding. Besides, women were teaching their children to speak their own dialect, and the children were developing kind of primitive bilingualism.

Interpretation was developing in ancient civilizations like Mesopotamia, Egypt, Ancient Greece and especially in multilingual Roman Empire.

Unfortunately we do not know about serious investigations on this matter because interpretation is non-material and could not be reflected in the written records and ancient chronicles. Written translation is luckier in this respect.