- •Introduction
- •Topic 1: principles of translation
- •1.1. Notes on the Profession of the Translator
- •1.2. Professional pride
- •1.3. Income
- •1.4. Speed
- •1.5. Enjoyment
- •Basic interpretation and linguistic terms used in the Topic
- •Keeping Trees Healthy and Safe
- •Topic 2: theory of interpretation
- •2.1. Background of interpretation theory (it)
- •2.2. First translation of the Bible as a milestone in the history of interpretation and the development of world civilization.Later history of interpretation
- •St. Jerome’s Oath
- •2.3. Deciphering the inscriptions on the Rosetta stone
- •2.4. A brief history of interpretation in the 20th Century
- •Birds and Butterflies
- •Health and Natural Balance with Patchouli
- •Topic 3: interpretation and contemporary life
- •3.1. XX century as a “golden age” of interpretation
- •3.2. Conference interpreting, professional training and diplomatic interpretation in XX century
- •3.3. Stagnation in economy – boom of interpretation
- •3.4. Interpretation in the New Millennium
- •3.5. The Very Beginning of Simultaneous Interpretation
- •Microbial Insecticides
- •Topic 4: interpretation activity
- •4.1. Translation and Interpretation Modes
- •4.2. Specific Skills required for interpreting
- •4.3. Simultaneous translation as a special kind of translating
- •4.4. Professional ethics and moral code of interpreters
- •Basic interpretation and linguistic terms used in previous topics
- •Big agribusiness draws cash
- •Topic 5: perception and understanding of messages in interpreting
- •5.1. Sense Perception and Understanding
- •5.2. The “Inner Speech” of the Interpreter
- •5.3. Interpreting without “Understanding” the Sense
- •Basic interpretation and linguistic terms used in the topic
- •1.Beneficial Insects
- •2. Kozak boat discovered in Dnipro River
- •Topic 6: types of contexts and contextual relationships in oral discourse
- •6.1. Text, Context and Discourse
- •6.2. Types of Contexts and Contextual Relationships
- •6.3. Recommendations for interpreters
- •Basic interpretation and linguistic terms used in topic 6
- •1.A Diet of Worms and Butterflies
- •2.Solarizing Soil
- •Topic 7: semantic aspects of interpretation
- •7.1. Semantic Structure of the Oral Message and its Main Components
- •7.2. The Role of the Rhematic Components
- •In Comprehending and Interpreting Oral Messages
- •7.3. Rendering “evaluative component” of messages in interpreting
- •Basic interpretation and linguistic terms used in topic 7
- •The Potential of Natural Fertilizers
- •Open Heart Surgery: a Matter of Life and Death
- •Topic 8: semantic redundancy of oral messages. Interpreter's note–taking
- •8.1. Semantic Redundancy as one of the Main Properties of Oral Discourse
- •8.2. Ways of Ensuring Semantic Redundancy of Oral Messages
- •8.3. Semantic Redundancy: Recommendations for Interpreters
- •8.4. Interpreter's Note–taking
- •Basic interpetation and linguistic terms used in topic 8
- •How the Zero was Discovered
- •Legacy of Death, bad Health lingers from Chornobyl blast
- •Topic 9: lexical aspects of interpretation
- •9.1. The Notion of the “Focus of Meaning”
- •9.2. Subject Field Terms: Ways of Interpreting Them
- •9.3. Clichés and Idioms as an Interpretation Problem
- •9.4. “Troublemaking” Lexical Units: Numerals, Proper Names, Specific Items of the National Lexicon, Abbreviations, Acronyms and “Misleading Words”
- •Basic interpretation and linguistic terms used in topic 9
- •Blood-sucking leeches popular for treatments
- •Topic 10: "gaps" in perception of oral discourse and ways of "filling them in" in interpreting
- •10.1. The Notion of "Gaps" in Perceiving Original Texts
- •10.2. Phonological "Gaps"
- •10.3. Lexical "Gaps"
- •10.4. Grammatical "Gaps"
- •10.5. Ways of Filling in the "Gaps" in Interpreting
- •10.6. Ways of Fighting Phonological Complications Caused by Accents and Dialects
- •Basic interpretation and linguistic terms used in topic 10
- •Life without It is only Silence
- •Topic 11: problems of translating idioms
- •11.1. Knowing Idioms is the Way to Speak Like a Native
- •11.2. Grammatical Nature of Idioms
- •11.3. Etymology of Idioms
- •11.4. How to Learn Idioms and Practice Them
- •Basic interpretation and linguistic terms
- •Tricky translations
- •In the text below you will find various word combinations using the word “job”. Their translations into Ukrainian follow in brackets:
- •Looking for a job
- •Topic 12: levels and components of interpretation. Interpreter’s challenges. Conference interpreting
- •12.1. Communication during Two-way Interpretation
- •Interpreter
- •12.2. Two Levels of Interpretation
- •12.3. Triad of Interpretation Process
- •12.4. Specifics and Situations in Interpreting Process
- •12.5. Factor of Time
- •Basic interpretation and linguistic terms
- •One monument to two events: Christianization, municipal rights
- •Farmland Moratorium end likely to be Unpredictable
- •Topic 13: precision and basis information, their distinctions and importance for interpretation adequacy
- •13.1. Constituents of Precision and Basis Information
- •13.2. Rendering pi in the Process of Interpretation
- •13.3. Undesirable Situations of Two-way Interpretation. Interpretation Pitfalls and Traps – How to Avoid Them
- •Basic interpretation and linguistic terms used in topic 13
- •The Brain’s Response to Nicotine
- •The Braine Response to Methamphetamine
- •Why I am a Pilot
- •Topic 14: characteristic peculiarities of professional interpretation
- •14.1. Intellectual Requirements
- •14.2. Requirements to Interpretation Adequacy
- •14.3. Memory and Interpretation
- •Organic farming takes root in countryside as people seek healthier food alternatives
- •Topic 15: analysis and synthesis during
- •Interpretation process
- •15.1. Two Stages of Interpretation Process
- •15.2. Understanding and Extraction of Meaningful Units
- •1.Hearing and the Types of Noises
- •2. Guess and Intuition
- •3. To See a Speaker
- •4. Automatism of Synthesis
- •5. Complicated is Simpler
- •15.3. Interpretation Typology
- •15.4. Constituents of Training Interpretation
- •15.5. Constituents of Real Interpretation and Ways of Achieving Adequacy
- •15.6. Subtypes of Professional Interpretation
- •The Price of Progress
- •Topic 16: hearing as the basic requirement to understanding
- •16.1. Hearing
- •16.2. The language of the original speech
- •16.3. The country of the speaker
- •16.4. The case of the speaker who uses a foreign language
- •16.5. Accents
- •16.6. Provincialisms
- •16.7. Subject Matter
- •16.8. General Culture
- •Topic 17: basic types of professional two-way interpretation (pti)
- •17.1. Dialogue Translation
- •17.2. Informal Two-way Interpretation Without Note-making
- •17.3. Official Two-way Interpreting Without Note-taking (Liaison Formal Interpreting)
- •17.5. Consecutive Discourse Interpreting
- •If salt loses its flavour
- •After losing West’s trust, ag firms looking to China
- •Basic Interpretation Analogues for the Text
- •Topic 18: combined types of interpretation
- •18.1. Sight translation
- •18.2. Sight translation with the help of dictaphone
- •18.3. Cinema/Video/tv-translation
- •18.4. Cinema/Video/tv-translation Without Preparation
- •18.5. Cinema/Video/tv-translation with Preliminary Preparation
- •18.6. Screen Translation as a Combined Type of Interpreting
- •Ukrainian exodus to North America
- •Topic 19: specialized interpretation
- •19.1. Details of Working in Different Spheres of Professional Communication
- •19.2. Forms of Initial Voice Information (for all Genres)
- •19.3. General-political Informational (Diplomatic) Discourse/Dialogue Interpreting
- •19.4. Phraseology in Interpretation
- •Donors Help Ukraine Cut High Infant Mortality Rate How Ukraine is changing childbirth practices
- •Topic 20: specialized interpretation (Continued)
- •20.1. Scientific and Technical Translation (Performances, Seminars, Lectures, Reports)
- •20.2. Special Terminological Abbreviations (Reductions, Shortenings)
- •20.3. Scientific-popular Translation (Lecture, Conversation, etc.)
- •As Demand for Rice Climbs, International Trade Falls
- •Vietnam pledges to punish rice speculators
- •Topic 21: specialized interpretation (Continued)
- •21.1. Judicial Two-way Interpreting
- •21.2. Sermon (Religious Genre)
- •21.3. Art Criticism Genre (Lecture, Excursion, Report)
- •Make oral translation of the sentences, paying attention to the adverb never, stylistic invertion and some other lexical and grammatical nuances:
- •The Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra
- •The Grounds of the upper Lavra
- •The Holy Trinity Gate Church
- •The Church of St. Nicolas
- •The Cells of the Councel Elders
- •Topic 22: language, speech and presentation skills
- •22.1. Culture of Language and Speech
- •22.2. Culture of Language and General Culture
- •22.3. Literary Language Norm
- •22.4. External Culture of Speech in the Process of Interpretation
- •22.5. Some Recommendations
- •22.6. Typical Mistakes in the Process of Interpretation
- •22.7. Interpretation Traps. Pitfalls and Gaffes in Grammar, Style and Lexis
- •22.8. Paradoxical Mistakes. Paralysis by Analysis
- •Applications of Agroecology
- •Topic 23: theory of interpreter’s note-taking
- •23.1. General Ideas
- •23.2. Type of Notes
- •23.3. Logical Analysis
- •23.4. Language of the Notes
- •23.5. Symbols and Abbreviations
- •Specific types of fish farms
- •Integrated recycling systems
- •Indoor fish farming
- •Topic 24: theory of interpreter’s note-taking (Continued)
- •24.1. Interrelation of Ideas
- •24.2. Preparation
- •24.3. Rearrangement of the Speech
- •24.4. Poetry
- •Pellagra
- •Topic 25: simultaneous translation
- •25.1. Psychological, Physical, and Linguistic Difficulties of Simultaneous Translation
- •25.2. Difference Between Professional Simultaneous Interpretation and Other Kinds of Interpretation
- •25.3. The Main Requirements to Professional Simultaneous Interpretation
- •Basic interpretation and linguistic terms used in topic 25
- •The Koala and Its Amazing Features
- •Topic 26: functional system of simultaneous interpretation. Anticipation in simultaneous interpretation
- •26.1. Functional System of Simultaneous Interpretation
- •26.2. Anticipation in Simultaneous Interpretation
- •The Power Plant in the Microcosmos: The atp Synthesis
- •Topic 27: compression and expansion
- •27.1. Compression and its Types in Simultaneous Interpretation Compression
- •27.2. Syllabic and Syntactic Compression
- •27.3. Lexical and Semantic Compression
- •27.4. Expansion in Simultaneous Interpretation
- •Topic 28: grammatical difficulties турical of interpretation
- •28.1. Grammatical Difficulties in Understanding Oral Texts
- •28.2. Rendering the English Articles
- •28.3. Rendering the Tense Forms of the Verb
- •28.4. Difficulties in Rendering the Forms Expressing Unreality
- •28.5 Difficulties in Rendering of the Affirmative and Negative Constructions
- •28.6 Comprehension of the "Inner Syntactic Structure" of the Source Language Messages by Simultaneous Interpreters
- •28.7. Word Order and Functional Sentence Perspective of Messages: Recommendations for Simultaneous Interpreters
- •28.8 Syntactic Transformations in Simultaneous Interpretation
- •28.9. Simultaneous Interpreting in the Environment of Complicated Bilingual Communication
- •Basic interpretation and linguistic terms used in Topic 28
- •Список літератури
Pellagra
When maize was first introduced into other farming systems than those used by traditional native-American peoples, it was generally welcomed with enthusiasm for its productivity. However, a widespread problem of malnutrition soon arose wherever maize was introduced as a staple. This was a mystery since these types of malnutrition were not normally seen among the indigenous Americans, to whom maize was the principal staple food.
It was eventually discovered that the indigenous Americans learned long ago to soak maize in alkali-water—made with ashes by North Americans and lime (calcium oxide) by Mesoamericans—which liberates the B-vitamin niacin, the lack of which was the underlying cause of the condition known as pellagra. This alkali process is known by its Nahuatl (Aztec)-derived name: nixtamalization.
Besides the lack of niacin, pellagra was also characterized by protein deficiency, a result of the inherent lack of two key amino acids in pre-modern maize, lysine and tryptophan. Nixtamalisation was also found to increase the availability of lysine and tryptophan to some extent, but more importantly, the indigenous Americans had learned long ago to balance their consumption of maize with beans and other protein sources such as amaranth and chia, as well as meat and fish, in order to acquire the complete range of amino acids for normal protein synthesis.
Since maize had been introduced into the diet of non-indigenous Americans without the necessary cultural knowledge acquired over thousands of years in the Americas, the reliance on maize in other cultures was often tragic. In the late 19th century pellagra reached epidemic proportions in parts of the deep southern U.S., as medical researchers debated two theories for its origin: the deficiency theory (eventually shown to be true) posited that pellagra was due to a deficiency of some nutrient, and the germ theory posited that pellagra was caused by a germ transmitted by stable flies. In 1914 the U.S. government officially endorsed the germ theory of pellagra, but rescinded this endorsement several years later as evidence grew against it. By the mid-1920s the deficiency theory of pellagra was becoming scientific consensus, and the theory was proved in 1932 when niacin deficiency was determined to be the cause of the illness.
Once alkali processing and dietary variety was understood and applied, pellagra disappeared. The development of high lysine maize and the promotion of a more balanced diet has also contributed to its demise.
Pests
Insect pests
Corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea)
Fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda)
Common armyworm (Pseudaletia unipuncta)
Stalk borer (Papaipema nebris)
Corn leaf aphid (Rhopalosiphum maidis)
European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) (ECB)
Corn silkfly (Euxesta stigmatis)
Lesser cornstalk borer (Elasmopalpus lignosellus)
Corn delphacid (Peregrinus maidis)
Western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte)
Southwestern corn borer (Diatraea grandiosella)
The susceptibility of maize to the European corn borer, and the resulting large crop losses, led to the development of transgenic expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis toxin. "Bt maize " is widely grown in the United States and has been approved for release in Europe.
Diseases
Corn smut or common smut (Ustilago maydis): a fungal disease, known in Mexico as huitlacoche, which is prized by some as a gourmet delicacy in itself.
Maize dwarf mosaic virus
Stewart's Wilt (Pantoea stewartii)
Common Rust (Puccinia sorghi)
Goss's Wilt (Clavibacter michiganese)
Grey Leaf Spot
Mal de Río Cuarto Virus (MRCV)
Stalk and Kernal Rot.
Food
Maize and cornmeal (ground dried maize) constitutes a staple food in many regions of the world. Maize meal is made into a thick porridge in many cultures: from the polenta of Italy, the angu of Brazil, the mămăligă of Romania, to mush in the U.S. or the food called sadza, nshima, ugali, and mealie pap in Africa. Maize meal is also used as a replacement for wheat flour, to make cornbread and other baked products. Masa (cornmeal treated with lime water) is the main ingredient for tortillas, atole and many other dishes of Mexican food.
Popcorn is kernels of certain varieties that explode when heated, forming fluffy pieces that are eaten as a snack. Roasted dried maize cobs with semi-hardened kernels, coated with a seasoning mixture of fried chopped spring onions with salt added to the oil, is a popular snack food in Vietnam.
Chicha and "chicha morada" (purple chicha) are drinks made usually from particular types of maize. The first one is fermented and alcoholic, the second is a soft drink commonly drunk in Peru.
Corn flakes are a common breakfast cereal in North America and the United Kingdom, and found in many other countries all over the world.
Maize can also be prepared as hominy, in which the kernels are soaked with lye in a process called nixtamalization; or grits, which are coarsely ground hominy. These are commonly eaten in the Southeastern United States, foods handed down from Native Americans, who called the dish sagamite.
The Brazilian dessert canjica is made by boiling maize kernels in sweetened milk.
Maize can also be harvested and consumed in the unripe state, when the kernels are fully grown but still soft. Unripe maize must usually be cooked to become palatable; this may be done by simply boiling or roasting the whole ears and eating the kernels right off the cob. Such corn on the cob is a common dish in the United States, United Kingdom and some parts of South America, but virtually unheard of in some European countries. The cooked unripe kernels may also be shaved off the cob and served as a vegetable in side dishes, salads, garnishes, etc. Alternatively, the raw unripe kernels may also be grated off the cobs and processed into a variety of cooked dishes, such as maize purée, tamales, pamonhas, curau, cakes, ice creams, etc. Sweetcorn, a genetic variety that is high in sugars and low in starch, is usually consumed in the unripe state.
Corn on the cob, as it is usually called in the United States, was hawked on the streets of early 19th-century New York City by poor, barefoot "Hot Corn Girls", who were thus the precursors hot-dog carts, churro wagons, and fruit stands seen on the streets of big cities today.
Maize is a major source of starch. Cornstarch (maize flour) is a major ingredient in home cooking and in many industrialized food products. Maize is also a major source of cooking oil (corn oil) and of maize gluten. Maize starch can be hydrolyzed and enzymatically treated to produce syrups, particularly high fructose corn syrup, a sweetener; and also fermented and distilled to produce grain alcohol. Grain alcohol from maize is traditionally the source of bourbon whiskey. Maize is sometimes used as the starch source for beer.
In the United States and Canada maize is also widely grown to feed for livestock, as forage, silage (made by fermentation of chopped green cornstalks), or grain. Maize meal is also a signi-ficant ingredient of some commer-cial animal food products, such as dog food.
Maize is also used as a fish bait, called "dough balls". It is particularly popular in Europe for coarse fishing.
Chemicals and medicines
Starch from maize can also be made into plastics, fabrics, adhesives, and many other chemical products.
Stigmas from female maize flowers, known popularly as corn silk, are sold as herbal supplements.
The corn steep liquor, a plentiful watery byproduct of maize wet milling process, is widely used in the biochemical industry and research as a culture medium to grow many kinds of microorganisms.
Biofuel
"Feed maize" is being used increasingly for heating; specialized corn stoves (similar to wood stoves) are available and use either feed maize or wood pellets to generate heat. Maizecobs are also used as a biomass fuel source. Maize is relatively cheap and home-heating furnaces have been developed which use maize kernels as a fuel. They feature a large hopper that feeds the uniformly sized maize kernels (or wood pellets or cherry pits) into the fire.
Maize is increasingly used as a feedstock for the production of ethanol fuel.Ethanol is mixed with gasoline in order to decrease the amount of pollutants emitted when used to fuel motor vehicles. High fuel prices in mid 2007 led to higher demand for ethanol, which in turn lead to higher prices paid to farmers for maize. This led to the 2007 harvest being one of the most profitable maize crops in modern history for farmers. Because of the relationship between fuel and maize, prices paid for the crop now tend to track the price of oil.
It has been erroneously asserted that recent food price increases were the result of higher prices for maize. Transportation costs are a large portion of the price of food, and higher fuel prices for transportaion affect food prices. Higher costs for food are mostly due to higher transportation costs. The price of the maize derived content has little effect.
Maize is widely used in Germany as a feedstock for biogas plants. Here the maize is harvested, shredded then placed in silage clamps from which it is fed into the biogas plants.
A biomass gasification power plant in Strem near Güssing, Burgenland, Austria was begun in 2005. Research is being done to make diesel out of the biogas by the Fischer Tropsch method.
Increasingly ethanol is being used at low concentrations (10% or less) as an additive in gasoline (gasohol) for motor fuels to increase the octane rating, lower pollutants, and reduce petroleum use (what is nowadays also known as "biofuels" and has been generating an intense debate regarding the human beings' necessity of new sources of energy, on the one hand, and the need to maintain, in regions such as Latin America, the food habits and culture which has been the essence of civilizations such as the one originated in Mesoamerica; the entry, January 2008, of maize among the commercial agreements of NAFTA has increased this debate, considering the bad labor conditions of workers in the fields, and mainly the fact that NAFTA "opened the doors to the import of maize from the United States, where the farmers who grow it receive multi-million dollar subsidies and other government supports. According to OXFAM UK, after NAFTA went into effect, the price of maize in Mexico fell 70% between 1994 and 2001. The number of farm jobs dropped as well: from 8.1 million in 1993 to 6.8 million in 2002. Many of those who found themselves without work were small-scale maize growers."). However, introduction in the northern latitudes of the U.S. of tropical maize for biofuels, and not for human or animal consumption, may potentially alleviate this.
As a result of the U.S. federal government announcing its production target of 35 billion gallons of biofuels by 2017, ethanol production will grow to 7 billion gallons by 2010, up from 4.5 billion in 2006, boosting ethanol's share of maize demand in the U.S. from 22.6 percent to 36.1 percent.
Ornamental and other uses
Some forms of the plant are occasionally grown for ornamental use in the garden. For this purpose, variegated and colored leaf forms as well as those with colorful ears are used. Additionally, size-superlative varieties, having reached 31 ft (9.4 m) tall, or with ears 24 inches (60.96 cm) long, have been popular for at least a century.
Corncobs can be hollowed out and treated to make inexpensive smoking pipes, first manufactured in the United States in 1869.
An unusual use for maize is to create a corn maze (or maize maze) as a tourist attraction. The idea of a maize maze was introduced by Adrian Fisher, one of the most prolific designers of modern mazes, with The American Maze Company who created a maze in Pennsylvania in 1993. Traditional mazes are most commonly grown using yew hedges, but these take several years to mature. The rapid growth of a field of maize allows a maze to be laid out using GPS at the start of a growing season and for the maize to grow tall enough to obstruct a visitor's line of sight by the start of the summer. In Canada and the U.S., these are popular in many farming communities.
Maize kernels can be used in place of sand in a sandbox-like enclosure for children's play.
Fill in the missing portions of the text in both columns.
Make two-way translation of the text:
Перерваний політ над Перською затокою |
Shoot down over the persian Gulf |
Понад 20 років тому сталася авіа-катастрофа пасажирського літака авіакомпанії «Іранські авіалінії», но-мер рейсу – 655. У неділю 3 липня 1988 року він вилетів з міста Бен-дер-Аббас (Іран) і мав приземлитися в Дубаї (Об’єднані Арабські Еміра-ти). Цей аеробус було збито над Пе-рською затокою ракетою, пущеною з американського крейсера «Вінсен-нес». Загинуло 248 осіб, включно з 15-ма членами екіпажу. Серед паса-жирів було 66 дітей. Під час запуску ракети крейсер «Вінсеннес» перебу-вав у територіальних водах Ірану. Пояснення американців: авіалайнер помилково було ідентифіковано як винищувач F-14 військово-повітря-них сил Ірану. Тегеран, одначе, донині стверджує, що «Вінсеннес» свідомо атакував цивільний літак. |
20 years ago Iran Air Flight 655, also known as IR655, was a civilian airliner shot down by US missiles on Sunday July 3, 1988, over the Strait of Hormuz, toward the end of the Iran-Iraq War. Operated by Iran Air from Bandar Abbas, Iran, to Dubai, UAE, the aircraft flying as IR655 was destroyed by the U.S. Navy's guided missile cruiser USS Vincennes betwe-en Bandar Abbas and Dubai, killing all 248 passengers and crew aboard, including 66 children, ranking it sev-enth among the deadliest airliner fata-lities. Vincennes was traversing the Straits of Hormuz, inside Iranian ter-ritorial waters, at the time of the attack and IR655 was within Iranian airspace. According to the US government, an inexperienced crew mistakenly identi-fied the Iranian Airbus A300 as an attacking F-14 Tomcat fighter. Howe-ver, the Iranian government of Teheran maintained that the Vincennes know-ingly shot down a civilian aircraft. |
27 ХВИЛИН Літак, яким керував капітан Мох-сен Резаян, мав здійснити короткий 28 хвилинний політ над Перською затокою до міжнародного аеропорту в Дубаї. Політ відбувався в межах міжнародного повітряного коридору завширшки 35 км, так званого «Amber 59», проведеного по прямій лінії між аеропортами Бендер- Аб-бас і Дубаі, за дуже простою польот-ною схемою: спершу - підйом на ви-соту до 4300 м, потім – політ по прямій до Дубаї, після чого – зни-ження і приземлення. Авіалайнер А300 вилетів з аеропорту Бендер-Аббас о 10:17 за іранським часом - на 27 хвилин пізніше запланованого, про що свідчить розклад. У цей час в Ормузькій протоці перебував ракетний крейсер ВМС США „Він-сеннес", обладнаний ракетною сис-темою AEGIS. Командував крейсе-ром капітан Вільям Роджерс. |
27 MINUTES The plane, an Airbus АЗООВ2, registered as EP-IBU and flown by Mohsen Rezaian, a veteran captain with 7,000 hours of flight time, left Bandar Abbas at 10:17 am Iran time, 27 minutes after its scheduled depar-ture time. It should have been a 28-minute flight. After takeoff, it was di-rected by the Bandar Abbas tower to turn on its transponder and proceed over the Persian Gulf. The flight was assigned routinely to commercial air corridor Amber 59, a twenty-mile (32 km) -wide lane on a direct line to Dubai airport. The short distance made for a simple flight pattern: climb to 14,000 feet (about 4,300 m), cruise for a short time, and descend into Dubai. |
Зранку 3 липня крейсер увійшов у територіальні води Ірану, переслі-дуючи іранські військові катери, які обстріляли американський гелікоп-тер, піднятий з крейсера, - той під час польоту ввійшов у повітряний простір Ірану. Крейсер „Вінсеннес" у затоці курсував задля захисту кувейтських танкерів від нападів ВМС Ірану та Іраку, які тоді воюва-ли між собою. Його було направ-лено в Ормузьку протоку після того, як 14 квітня на іранську плавучу міну наскочив фрегат ВМС США „Самуель Робертс". Через те, що Іран закупив у Китаю протикора-бельні ракети HY-1 (копія радянсь-кої ракети П-15М), американські ВМС, які патрулювали в цьому районі під час операції «Правдива Воля», задля захисту танкерів три-мали корабель, обладнаний ракет-ною системою AEGIS. Головною причиною інциденту в своєму офійному поясненні адмірал Фогарті назвав психологічний стан команди крейсера „Вінсеннес", який діяв за бойових обставин, під вог-нем з катерів, а також - схожість по-льотного профілю лайнера з можли-вим профілем атаки іранського винищувача. Загалом, у Пентагоні констатували подію як „військовий інцидент" і вважають, що команда крейсера діяла згідно з обставинами. Іранські офіційні кола в Тегерані назвали атаку цивільного літака зу-мисним протизаконним актом. На думку представників Ірану на Між-народному суді, навіть у випадку помилки, „щодо якої Іран має сум-ніви", обстріл пасажирського літака є наслідком злочинної недбалості, а не нещасним випадком, і має конс-татуватися, як міжнародний злочин. Фактично в Тегерані вважають, що США та Іран були в той час у стані неоголошеної війни, до того ж США виступили на боці Іраку, нада-ючи Багдаду військову та політичну підтримку. У Тегерані назвали атаку пасажирського авіалайнера свідо-мим актом агресії, спрямованим на те, щоб спричинити тиск на іран-ський уряд і в такий спосіб добитися перемир'я в Ірано-іракській війні. |
On the morning of July 3, the Vincennes was passing through the Strait of Hormuz returning from an escort duty. A helicopter from the USS Vincennes received warning fire after it buzzed Iranian patrol vessels. The Vincennes then crossed into Iranian territorial waters and opened fire on Iranian gunboats. The USS Sides (FFG-14) and USS Elmer Montgomery (FF-1082) were nearby. It was shortly after this gunfire exchange that Iran Air Flight 655 approached to begin its transit of the Straits. The USS Vincennes fired missiles at the airliner, destroying it and causing it to fall into the waters of the Gulf. The event triggered an intense controversy, with Iran condemning the shootdown as a «barbaric act». In mid-July 1988, Iranian Foreign Minister All Akbar Velayati asked the United Nations Security Council to condemn the United States saying the downing «could not have been a mistake» and was a «criminal act», an «atrocity» and a «massacre». George H.W. Bush, at the time Vice President of the United States in the Reagan Administration, defended his country at the United Nations by arguing that the shootdown had been a wartime incident and that the crew of the Vincennes had acted appropriately to the situation at the time. The Soviet Union asked the US to withdraw from the area and supported efforts made by the Security Council to end the Iran-Iraq war. The remainder of the 13 delegates that spoke echoed the US position saying one of the problems was that a 1987 resolution to end the Iran-Iraq war had been ignored. Following the debate, Security Council Resolution 616 was passed expressing «deep distress» over the downing, «profound regret» for the loss of life, and stressed the need to end the Iran-Iraq war as resolved in 1987. |
Дві ракети класу «Земля-повітря» Згідно з офіційною заявою уряду США, авіалайнер було помилково визначено крейсером „Вінсеннес" як іранський військовий літак. Рейс № 655 здійснював політ, який нагаду-вав профіль виходу на атаку F-14, що є на озброєнні ВПС Ірану. Крім того, літак вилетів з аеропорту Бен-дер-Аббас, який був не тільки коме-рційним аеропортом, але й аеродро-мом для базування іранських F-14. Згідно з тими ж повідомленнями, „Вінсеннес" неодноразово (11 разів) намагався зв'язатися з рейсом №655 по радіо, проте не отримав жодної відповіді.
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The two SM-2MR Surface-to-air missiles According to the US government, the Vincennes mistakenly identified the Iranian airliner as an attacking military fighter. The officers identified the flight profile being flown by the Airbus А300В2 as being similar to that of an F-14A Tomcat during an attack run. The commercial flight had originated at Bandar Abbas, which served dual roles as a base for Iranian F-14 operations and as a hub for commercial, civilian flights. According to the same reports, the Vincennes tried unsuccessfully to contact the approaching aircraft, four times on the military emergency frequency and three times on the civilian emergency frequency, but never on air traffic control frequencies. As seen on «Mayday» on Discovery channel, the USS Vincennes could have used the squawk code to advise Iran Air 655 that they were indeed speaking to them and not another aircraft, however using the squawk code is not normal practice and hence was not used. If the squawk code was used the captain of Iran Air 655 would have known the USS Vincennes was speaking to him, and the whole incident could have been avoided. Also noted is that the USS Vincennes claims that Iran Air was descending, which it never did. |
О 10:24 крейсер запустив дві раке-ти класу „земля-повітря" SM-2MR по повітряній цілі, яка була на від-стані 20 км. Обидві ракети поцілили в літак і він розколовся щонаймен-ше на дві частини й упав у море. Тільки після попадання на крейсері літак ідентифікували, як іранський пасажирський авіалайнер. |
At 10:24 am, with the civilian jet 11 nautical miles (20 km) away, the Vincennes fired two SM-2MR surface-to-air missiles which both hit Flight 655. After the engagement, the Vincennes' crew realized that the plane had been a civilian airliner. |
Цю версію ми знайшли в рапорті адмірала Вільяма Фогарті, який з американського боку очолював офі-ційне розслідування цього інциден-ту. Рапорт було розсекречено і опубліковано, але частково: першу частину 1988 року, а другу - 1993-го. Оприлюднені висновки з рапорта було нищівно критиковано громадс-кістю. |
This version was finalized in a report by Admiral William Fogarty, entitled Formal Investigation into the Circumstances Surrounding the Downing of Iran Air Flight 655 on 3 July 1988. Only parts of this report have been released (part I in 1988 and part II in 1993), which has drawn criticism from many observers. The Fogarty report stated, «The data from USS Vincennes tapes, information from USS Sides and reliable intelligence information, corroborate the fact that [Iran Air Flight 655] was on a normal commercial air flight plan profile, in the assigned airway, squawking Mode III 6760, on a continuous ascent in altitude from take-off at Bandar Abbas to shoot-down». |
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When questioned in a 2000 BBC documentary, the US government stated in a written answer that they believed the incident may have been caused by a simultaneous psychological condition amongst the 18 bridge crew of the Vincennes called 'scenario fulfilment', which is said to occur when persons are under pressure. In such a situation, the men will carry out a training scenario, believing it to be reality while ignoring sensory information that contradicts the scenario. In the case of this incident, the scenario was an attack by a lone military aircraft The U.S. government issued notes of regret for the loss of human life and in 1996 paid reparations to settle a suit brought in the International Court of Justice regarding the incident. It never admitted wrongdoing, accepted responsibility, nor apologized for the incident In August 1988 Newsweek quoted then vice president George Bush as saying; «I'll never apologize for the United States of America. Ever, I don't care what the facts are» in regard to the shoot down. An independent investigation by the ICAO concluded that the US was at fault by cultivating an unstable battle scenario with no regard for civilian air traffic. According to the Iranian government, the shooting down of IR 655 by the Vincennes was an intentionally performed and unlawful act. Even if there was a mistaken identification, which Iran has not accepted, it argues that this constituted gross negligence and recklessness amounting to an international crime, not an accident. In particular, Iran expressed skepti-cism about claims of misidentification, noting that the Vincennes had advan-ced AEGIS radar that correctly tracked the flight and its Mode III beacon; two other U.S. warships in the area. Sides and Montgomery, identified the air-craft as civilian; and the flight was well within a recognized international air corridor. It also noted that the crew of the Vincennes was trained to handle simultaneous attacks by hundreds of enemy aircraft. Iran found it more plausible that the Vincennes «hankered for an opportunity to show its stuff». According to Iran, the U.S had previously issued a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) warning aircraft that they were at risk of «defensive measures» if they had not been cleared from a regional airport and if they came within 5 nautical miles of a warship at an altitude of less than 2000 feet». IR 655 had been cleared from a regional airport and was well outside those limits when it was attacked. |
Частоти цивільної авіації Протягом всього свого останньо-го польоту рейс №655 мав безперер-вний радіоконтакт з різними авіаційними диспетчерськими служ-бами, використовуючи для цього стандартні радіочастоти, традиційні для цивільної авіації. За кілька се-кунд до запуску ракет з крейсера „Вінсеннес" пілоти авіалайнера мали перемовини англійською мо-вою зі службою диспетчерів аеропо-рту в Бендер Аббас. Згідно з висно-вками офіційного розслідування, на борту крейсера „Вінсеннес" не було радіообладнання, з яким можна бу-ло б слухати ефір і вести переговори на частотах цивільної авіації, за винятком міжнародної аварійної ча-стоти. Згодом американські військо-ві кораблі, які курсували в цьому районі, було оснащено відповідним обладнанням, яке давало змогу ви-користовувати цивільні частоти і отримувати доступ до інформації щодо польотних планів пасажир-ських рейсів. У звіті комісії з розслідування зазначається, що американськими військовими на військовій частоті було здійснено сім спроб контакту з рейсом №655, і три спроби зв'яза-тися на комерційних аварійних час-тотах. До того ж запити адресува-лися до «нерозпізнаного іранського літака», швидкість якого дорівню-вала 350 вузлам. Тим часом, пілоти авіалайнера не вважали свій літак «нерозпізнаним», оскільки бортовий відповідач було ввімкнено і функціонував він протя-гом усього польоту. Крім того, літак мав приладну швидкість 300 вузлів, а швидкість 350 вузлів - була його шляховою швидкістю, яку вимірю-ють відносно землі (у цьому випад-ку - відносно радару корабля). Бортовий самописець літака зафік-сував, що пілоти авіарейсу № 655 отримали три останніх запити з кре-йсера, але зважили, що вони стосу-ються не їх, а іранського військо-вого літака Р-3 «Оріон», який перед тим пролетів у цьому ж районі. |
The civil aviation frequences Throughout its final flight IR655 was in radio contact with various air traffic control services using standard civil aviation frequencies, and had spoken in English to Bandar Abbas Approach Control seconds before the Vincennes launched its missiles. According to the U.S. Navy investigation the Vincennes at that time had no equipment suitable for monitoring civil aviation frequencies, other than the International Air Distress frequency. Subsequently U.S. Navy warships in the area were equipped with dialable VHF radios, and access to flight plan information was sought, to better track commercial airliners. The official ICAO report stated that 10 attempts were made to contact Iran Air flight 655; seven on military frequencies and three on commercial frequencies, addressed to an «unidentified Iranian aircraft» and giving its speed as 350 knots (650 km/h). Indeed both Sides and Vincennes tried contacting flight 655 on several civilian and military frequencies. However IR655 was arguably not «unidentified» as its commercial Mode III Transponder was active and squawking its assigned 6760 identifier code. It was traveling at airspeed of 300 knots (560 km/h). The reference to «350 knots» was its speed over ground, as observed by radar. International investigations concluded that the crew of IR655 assumed that the three calls that they received before the missiles struck must have been directed at an Iranian P3. The ship's crew did not efficiently consult commercial airliner schedules, due to confusion over which time zone the schedules referred to. The airliner's departure was 27 minutes later than scheduled. «The CIC was also very dark, and the few lights that it did have flickered every time the Vincennes fired at the speedboats. This was of special concern to Petty Officer Andrew Anderson, who first picked up Flight 655 on radar and thought that it might be a commercial aircraft As he was searching in the Navy's listing of commercial flights, he apparently missed Flight 655 because it was so dark». An Iranian P-3 was in the area some time before the attack, thought to be flying a «classic targeting profile», and in some reports providing an explana-tion no radar signals were detected from Iran Air Flight 655 Other reports state that the Airbus was immediately detected after takeoff by Vincennes's AN/SPY-1 radar at a range of 47 miles (76 km). |
Психологія Офіційні джерела, а також незале-жні експерти називають досить ши-рокий перелік факторів, які могли вплинути на рішення, що призвело до такої трагедії. Команда корабля не мала нормального контакту для взаємодії в такій ситуації з цивіль-ними авіадиспетчерами, що цілком зрозуміло через непрості взаємини між американською та іранською сторонами. Крім того, командний центр крейсера був зайнятий боєм між крейсером та іранськими кате-рами, який відбувся того ж ранку. Це могло завадити офіцерові, відпо-відальному за розпізнавання цілей, знайти інформацію про пасажирсь-кий рейс у відповідному довіднику. Попри те, незадовго до інциденту над Ормузькою протокою пролітав уже згаданий іранський літак-роз-відник Р-3 «Оріон». З ним пілоти рейсу № 655 помилково ототожнили запити, отримані по радіо з крейсе-ра. Ще один нюанс на користь американських моряків - іранський пасажирський літак відхилився при-близно на 5 км від центру повіт-ряного коридору незадовго до того, як його збили. Вважається, що таке відхилення не є типовим для лайне-рів, і що відхилення було в бік крей-сера, тому його не тяжко було наз-вати й атакою. Інцидент відбувся приблизно через рік після того, як у Перській затоці іранським винищу-вачем «Міраж» F-1 було обстріляно й пошкоджено американський фре-гат „Старк". Унаслідок попадання протикорабельної ракети „Екзосет" на фрегаті загинуло 37 членів екіпа-жу, а корабель дістав ушкодження, через які ледве залишився на плаву. Після цього випадку на американсь-кому військовому флоті, який базу-вався в Перській затоці, було вве-дено нові правила безпеки, згідно з якими дозволялося обстрілювати потенційно небезпечні повітряні цілі. |
The psychology The crew of the Vincennes Combat Information Center (CIC) confusingly reported the plane as ascending and descending at the same time (there were two «camps»). This seems to have happened because the Airbus' original CIC track, number 4474, had been replaced by the Sides track, number 4131, when the computer recognised them as one and the same. Shortly thereafter, track 4474 was re-assigned by the system to an American A-6, several hundred miles away, which was following a descending course at the time. Apparently not all the crew in the CIC realized the track number had been switched on them. |
Тож після бою з іранськими кате-рами психологічний стан команди „Вінсеннеса" був досить напруже-ним". Корабель увійшов до ірансь-ких територіальних вод, і виліт рей-су № 655 міг бути ними оцінений як реакція іранської сторони. Експерти з озброєння та програмного забез-печення армії відзначали тоді недос-татньо високий рівень підготовки офіцерів, а також відсутність досві-ду прийняття швидких рішень щодо складної комп'ютерної ракетної системи AEGIS. Крім того, в звіті наголошується на тому, що інтер-фейс користувача AEGIS на крей-сері був недосконалим і мав суттєві недоробки. |
The psychology and mindset after engaging in a battle with Iranian gun-boats was as follows. There are claims that Vincennes was engaged in an operation using a decoy cargo ship to lure Iranian gunboats to a fight. Howe-ver, those claims are denied by Fogarty in «Hearing Before The Investigation Subcommittee and The Defense Policy Panel of The Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, One Hundred Second Congress, Sec-ond Session, July 21, 1992». Also, the initial claims of Vincennes being call-ed for help by a cargo ship attacked by Iranian gunboats have been ruled out. That leads to claims that the Iranian gunboats were provoked by helicopters inside Iranian waters and not the other way around. This might have contribu-ted to the mistakes made. The actual reasons for the Vincennes' engagement with gunboats is not so dear to this date. |
26 лютого 1996 року США пого-дилися виплатити Ірану компенса-цію - 61,8 мільйонів доларів за 248 загиблих, – із розрахунку 300,000 доларів на кожну дорослу жертву 1150,000 за кожну дитину. Компен-сувати вартість літака (приблизно 30 мільйонів доларів) американці від-мовилися. Ця компенсація однозна-чно вважається в США як односто-ронній добровільний акт, оскільки відповідальність за подію уряд США на себе не взяв. Президент Джордж Буш-старший ось що на це сказав: „Я ніколи не буду просити вибачення в народу Ірану. Мені байдуже, хто винен". Виплата ком-пенсації зупинила судовий процес у Міжнародному суді. |
In February 1996 the United States agreed to pay Iran US$131,8 million in settlement to discontinue a case brought by Iran against the U.S. in the International Court of Justice relating to this incident, together with other earlier claims before the Iran-U.S. Claims Tribunal. US$61,8 million of the claim was in compensation for the 248 Iranians killed in the shootdown ($300,000 per wage-earning victim, $150,000 per non-wage-earner). It was not disclosed how the remaining $70 million of the settlement was apportioned. Further compensation was paid for the 38 non-Iranian deaths. The payment of compensation was explicitly characterized by the US as being on an ex gratia basis, and the U.S. denied having any responsibility or liability for what happened. |