§ 1. The adverb is a part of speech, which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.

The function of the adverb is that of an adverbial modifier. An adverb may modify verbs (verbals), words of the category of state, adjectives and adverbs.

Annette turned her neck lazily, touched one eyelash and said: "He amuses Winifred." (Galsworthy)

And glancing sidelong at his nephew he thought... (Galsworthy)

For a second they stood with hands hard clasped. (Galsworthy)

And now the morning grew so fair, and all things were so wide-awake. (Dickens)

The man must have had diabolically acute hearing. (Wells)

Harris spoke quite kindly and sensibly about it. (Jerome)

§ 2. As to their structure adverbs are divided into:

(1) Simple adverbs (long, enough, then, there etc.);

(2) Derivative adverbs (slowly, likewise) forward, headlong etc.); (The most productive adverb-forming suffix is -ly. There are also some other suffixes: -wards, -ward, -long, -wise.)

(3) Compound adverbs (anyhow, sometimes, nowhere etc.);

(4) Composite adverbs (at once, at last etc.).

§ 3. Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.

(a) If the adverb is a word of one syllable, the comparative degree is formed by adding -er and the superlative by adding -est.

fast — faster — fastest

hard — harder — hardest

(b) Adverbs ending in -ly form the comparative by means of more and the superlative by means of most.

wisely — more wisely — most wisely

beautifully—more beautifully—most beautifully

(c) Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison:

well —better—best

badly — worse —- worst

much — more — most

little — less — least

§ 4. According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:

(1) Adverbs of time (today, to-morrow, soon etc.);

(2) Adverbs of repetition or frequency (often, seldom, ever, never, sometimes etc.);

(3) Adverbs of place and direction (inside, outside, here, there, backward, upstairs etc.);

(4) Adverbs of cause and consequence (therefore, consequently, accordingly etc.);

(5) Adverbs of manner (kindly, quickly, hard etc.);

(6) Adverbs of degree, measure and quantity (very, enough, half, too, nearly, almost, much, little, hardly, rather, exceedingly, quite, once, twice, firstly, secondly etc.).

Three groups of adverbs stand aside: interrogative, relative and conjunctive adverbs.

Interrogative adverbs (where, when, why, how) are used in special questions.

Conjunctive and relative adverbs are used to introduce subordinate clauses.

Some adverbs are homonymous with prepositions, conjunctions and words of the category of state.

THE PLACE OF ADVERBS IN THE SENTENCE

1. Adverbs of time – yesterday, then, yet, now, today, tomorrow, etc. – are placed at the end of the sentence or at the very beginning of it.

I went to the theatre yesterday. Yesterday I went to the theatre.

2. Adverbs of repetition and frequency – often, never, seldom, sometimes, usually, still etc. - precede the principal verb.

They never do this. He often goes there.

But with the verb to be they follow the verb.

She is still in bed. The girl is often ill

3. Adverbs of manner – kindly, badly, well, etc. and of place – here, there etc. – are usually placed after the direct object or after the verb.

Mr. Black’s wife plays the piano well.

4. If an adverb of time and an adverb of place are used together the latter precedes the former.

I’ll go there tomorrow.

5. Adverbs of degree (almost, nearly, quite, just, too, very etc.) are generally placed before adjectives or other adverbs.

I find him very clever. We know him quite well.

Mind that enough comes after the adjective.

This hat is good enough for me.

Chapter VIII

THE MODAL WORDS

§ 1. The modal words express the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability of the action he speaks about.

§ 2. According to their meaning modal words fall under the following main groups:

(1) Words expressing certainty (certainly, surely, assuredly, of course, no doubt, apparently, undoubtedly etc.);

(2) Words expressing supposition (perhaps, maybe, possibly, probably etc.);

(3) Words showing whether the speaker considers the action he speaks about desirable or undesirable (happily — unhappily: lucki­ly — unluckily; fortunately — unfortunately).

§ 3. In the sentence modal words are used as parentheses. Sometimes they are used as sentence-words.

Certainly you'll admit we could finish all this in a month. (Wilson)

"Will you allow me to detain you one moment," said he. "Cer­tainly," replied the unwelcome visitor. (Dickens)

§ 4. Most modal words have developed from adverbs, so very often there exists a formal identity between modal words and ad­verbs. For instance such modal words as certainly, surely, happily are homonymous with the adverbs certainly, surely, happily.

Such modal words as possibly, probably, indeed, also derived from adverbs, have no corresponding homonymous adverbs because the latter ceased to be used in Modern English

Though formally identical with adverbs, modal words differ from them in meaning and syntactical function.

If he were not married as happily as he was, might not some­thing come of it? (Dreiser) (ADVERB)

... she hauled me to the washstand, inflicted a merciless, but hap­pily brief scrub on my face and hands with soap water, and a coarse towel. (Ch. Bronte) (modal word)

Lamlein rose. "We have fulfilled our obligations," he said pom­pously, and yet not quite certainly. (Heym) (adverb)

Soames smiled. Certainly, uncle Jolyon had a way with him. (Galsworthy) (modal word)

Slowly, surely, with the secret inner process that works the de­struction of an old tree, the poison of the wounds to his happiness, his will, his pride, had corroded the comely edifice of his philo­sophy. (Galsworthy) (adverb)

Over the ridge she would find him. Surely she would find him over the ridge. (Wells) (modal word)

Chapter IX

THE INTERJECTION