Методические указания студентам-лингвистам 3 курса.

Данный курс предполагает посещение занятий; знание излагаемого на них материала:

а) знание основных категорий и понятий данной дисциплины;

б) знакомство с основными теориями, взглядами, подходами и классификациями словарей и энциклопедий;

в) умение анализировать словарные статьи из словарей разных типов;

г) корректное использование метаязыка;

д) самостоятельное изучение тем, предусмотренных программой курса;

е) знание лексического и терминологического минимума;

ж) выполнение домашних заданий и подготовка докладов по самостоятельно изученным темам;

з) разработка и защита реферата по выбранной теме (см. раздел Организация самостоятельной работы студентов cтр. 27).

Дидактические материалы для осуществления контроля знаний студентов

1. Контрольные письменные тесты в аудитории (по окончании каждой темы);

2. Подготовленные рефераты студентов с мультимедийной презентацией (на каждом занятии);

3. Словарные и терминологические диктанты (по окончании темы);

4. Проверка индивидуальных списков изученных словарей и словарных источников (100 наименований) (в конце семестра);

5. Контрольные экзаменационные тесты (в конце каждого семестра).

В конце 5 семестра проводится дифференцированный зачет. Кроме того, в течение семестра предполагается проведение рейтингового контроля в общей сложности 2 раза в течение семестра (8/9 и 17/18 неделя семестра). Максимальное количество баллов, выставляемое студентам по итогам каждого рейтингового контроля – 50 баллов. Во внимание при этом должны приниматься:

• Результаты студентов при выполнении контрольных тестовых заданий;

• Активность на занятиях;

• Готовность к занятиям;

• Посещаемость занятий.

Зачет в конце 5 семестра включает:

• Ответы на билеты по пройденному теоретическому материалу;

• Выполнение итогового семестрового теста;

• Знание лексикографической терминологии;

• Составление лексикографического списка изученных словарей, энциклопедий и словарных источников.

Критерии оценивания знаний

а) В результате изучения дисциплины студент должен:

• знать и применять на практике теоретические основы, методологию и методику лексикографии (на базе современных достижений лингвистики, компьютерных и мультимедийных технологий);

• свободно владеть специальной терминологией;

• уметь находить и анализировать стоящие перед студентом лингвистические задачи (анализ и синтез текста на родном или иностранном языке);

• овладеть знаниями макро- и микроструктуры каждого типа словаря, распознавая их достоинства и недостатки;

• уметь ориентироваться в выборе словарей, лексикографических справочников и энциклопедий, то есть знать и пользоваться основными типами одноязычных и переводных словарей с целью лингвистического анализа;

• овладеть навыками анализа любой словарной статьи, интерпретируя положительные и отрицательные качества соответствующего словаря или справочника.

б) Поскольку зачет по данной дисциплине - дифференцированный, то критерии оценки ответа по дисциплине «Лексикография» следующие:

• Знание основных категорий и понятий данной дисциплины. Знакомство с основными теориями, взглядами, подходами и классификациями словарей и энциклопедий. Умение анализировать исследуемое явление в эволюционно-историческом и функциональном аспектах, с учетом выбора словарных справочников и энциклопедий. Корректное использование метаязыка. Адекватная интерпретация лексических, грамматических и стилистических средств, используемых в данном тексте словарной статьи. Правильность речи (грамматическая, лексическая, фонетико-интонационная).

5 «отлично» Исчерпывающее знание основных категорий и понятий. Полное представление о существующих теориях, подходах и классификациях. Корректное использование терминологии. Умение систематизировать и обобщать материал и устанавливать связь теории с практикой. Адекватное использование метаязыка при анализе лексикографического материала. Наличие собственной точки зрения и умение данную точку аргументировать. Речь в целом правильная, выразительная.

4 «хорошо» Имеются неточности в понимании основных категорий и понятий. Неполное представление о существующих теориях и классификациях. Недостаточно корректное использование терминологии. Недостаточно сформированные умения обобщения и систематизации материала, несвободное владение метаязыком, неполная интерпретация языковых средств. Наличие ошибок в речи, не носящих грубый характер.

3 «удовлетворительно» Отрывочное представление о существующих теориях и классификациях. Слабое владение категориальным аппаратом. Отсутствие логики изложения, неаргументированные выводы. Частичное понимание лексикографической проблематики. Грубые ошибки в речи.

2 «неудовлетворительно» Незнание основных категорий и понятий. Грубые ошибки в толковании теорий и классификаций. Отсутствие выводов и опоры на знание теоретического пласта. Полное непонимание содержания словарного материала, неумение его адекватно интерпретировать. Обилие грубых ошибок в речи.

Introduction to Units

These recommendations may be part of a self-study programme, it gives practice in finding and interpreting the information available in the dictionaries. The language and reference skills required to use these dictionaries effectively are isolated and practiced in a series of assignments. The assignments are short, each with a clear learning objective. It is advisable to work through the assignments from the beginning but they can be done in any order. Working at the assignments, try not to forget the following suggestions.

1. Read the notes that come before the assignments carefully, they explain some terms that may be new to you.

2. Make sure you understand the instructions for each assignment.

3. Check this by working out the example by yourself using your dictionary.

4. Do the assignments carefully but watch the time. You must work as quickly as you can.

5. Always use your dictionary even if you think you know the answer.

6. Notice the way you thinking. Be interested in how you learning and, if you make a mistake, think why.

7. Consult glossary of lexicographic terms, learn them by heart, every lesson adding new ones in your vocabulary.

Remember, the more you use the dictionary, the more uses you will find for it. Dictionary reading should become an indispensable part in your work at English.

Unit 1. Learner’s dictionaries of the English language and their peculiarities.

Literature:

1. Ступин Л.П. Лексикография английского языка. М., 1985.- С. 12-18, 118-136.

2. Лингвистический энциклопедический словарь. / Под ред. В.Н. Ярцевой.- М., СЭ, 2000.

3. Arnold I.V. The English Word. M., 1986. - P. 261-266.

4. The MacMillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners.- International student edition.- UK, 2002.

5. The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English by A. S. Hornby. – UK, 2003.

6. http://www.britannica/com/theory/lexicography.

WORKING DEFINITIONS

of PRINCIPAL CONCEPTS

Dictionary is used to denote a book that lists the words of a language in a certain order (usually alphabetical) and gives their meanings, or that gives the equivalent words in a different language.

Dictionary structure is characterized by segmented arrangement of material: any word or group of words is followed by an independent text is called a dictionary entry.

Encyclopaedic dictionary is a scientific reference book dealing with every branch of knowledge, or with the particular branch, usually in alphabetical order, i.e. the Oxford Paperback Encyclopedia; Random House Webster’s Biographical Dictionary.

Etymological dictionary explains the origin and development of words.

Explanatory dictionary deals with the form, usage and meaning of words and provides all the information in the same language.

Learner’s dictionary is especially compiled to meet the demands of the learners for whom English is not their mother tongue.

Lexicology is the part of lexis dealing with the body of a language and the properties of words as the main units of language.

Lexicography is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries, it is an important part of applied linguistics. In has a common object of study with lexicology as both describe the vocabulary of a language.

Linguistic dictionary gives information about language units in various aspects, e.g. the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English.

Phraseological dictionary / Dictionary of idioms. It is a dictionary that treats phraseological units.

Assignment 1. Make sure that you can answer the following questions (based on the previous lecture):

• What is the origin of the terms “lexicology” and “lexicography”? What do they mean?

• What is the relationship between lexicography and lexicology?

• Enumerate main functions of practical lexicography.

• What periods of practical lexicography do you know?

Assignment 2. Give definitions to the terms “linguistic dictionary”, “encyclopaedic dictionary”, “learner’s dictionary” and others, be ready to write a dictation.

Assignment 3. Read and translate the text.

Types and common characteristics of learner’s dictionaries

Traditionally the term ‘learner’s dictionaries’ is confined to dictionaries specifically compiled to meet the demands of the learners for whom English is not their mother tongue. Learner’s dictionaries may be classified in accordance with different principles, the main of which are:

1) the scope of the word-list, and 2) the nature of the information afforded. Depending on what the scope of the word-list and the nature of the information afforded are all learner’s dictionaries can be usually divided into:

a) elementary/basic/pre-intermediate learner’s dictionaries;

b) intermediate learner’s dictionaries;

c) upper-intermediate- advanced learner’s dictionaries.

1. The scope of the word-list. The difference in the scope of the word-list between these types of learner’s dictionaries is that elementary/basic/pre-intermediate learner’s dictionaries as well as intermediate learner’s dictionaries contain only the most essential and important , the so-called key-words of English (see the Longman Elementary Dictionary), whereas upper-intermediate- advanced learner’s dictionaries contain all lexical units that the prospective user may need (see A.S. Hornby’s Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary).

The common purpose of learner’s dictionaries is to give information on what is currently accepted in modern English. Therefore not only obsolete, archaic and dialectal words are excluded, but also technical and scientific terms, substandard words and phrases. Colloquial and slang words as well as foreign words of common occurrence in English are included only if they are of sort likely to be met by students either in reading or in conversation.

For the selection of entry words into learner’s dictionaries frequency criterion is widely used. Frequency value, an important characteristic of lexical units, enables the compiler to choose the most important, the most frequently used words. The selection of items for learner’s dictionaries may also be based on other principles: the word’s collocation, stylistic reference, derivational ability, semantic structure and some others.

2. The nature of the information afforded. As to the information they provide all learner’s dictionaries may be divided into 2 groups: 1) those giving equal attention to the word’s semantic characteristics and the way it is used in speech (learner’s dictionaries proper);

2) those presenting different aspect of the vocabulary: presenting the syntagmatic relations between words and the word’s lexical and grammatical valency (dictionaries of collocations), providing information about the word’s structure (derivational dictionaries), supplying synonymous and antonymous words (dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms) and many others.

The structure and content of the entry in learner’s dictionaries also have some peculiar features that usually differ depending on a learner’s level in the study of English. Elementary/basic/pre-intermediate learner’s dictionaries together with intermediate learner’s dictionaries differ, sometimes greatly, from advanced learner’s dictionaries in the number of meanings given and the language used for the description of these meanings. The former present the schematic structure of the words in a simplified form and give usually the most frequently used meaning or meanings. Great importance is also attached to the language in which the definition is couched. The simplest terms are used in Elementary/basic/pre-intermediate learner’s dictionaries and intermediate learner’s dictionaries as the language must be commoner and more familiar to the learner, especially to a beginner, than the words defined.

In most learner’s dictionaries pictorial material is widely used as a means of semantisation of the words listed. Pictures may define the meanings of different nouns as well as adjectives, verbs, and adverbs.

The order of arrangement of meanings in learner’s dictionaries is usually empiric, i.e. beginning with main meaning to minor ones. Besides, the following principles of arrangement are considered proper for language learners: literal uses before figurative, general uses before special, common uses before rare and easily understandable uses before difficult.

In some learner’s dictionaries alternative spellings and pronunciation are avoided, certain derivatives and compounds are omitted.

The supplementary material in learner’s dictionaries may include lists of irregular verbs, common abbreviations, geographical names, common forenames, numerical expressions giving help in reading, speaking and writing of numbers and expressions which contain them, lists of military ranks, lists of word-formation prefixes and suffixes, tables weighs and measures, a list of colleges and universities, special signs and symbols used in various branches of science.

( Zykova I.V.” A Practical Course in English Lexicology”.- pp.192-193). “Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English by A.S. Hornby” and “MacMillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners” have achieved world-wide recognition as the most valuable practical reference books to English as a foreign language. These dictionaries have been specially written to help students of English. Being able to use both English-English dictionaries well will help a student in his/her English studies.

Assignment 4. Answer the questions to the text and be ready to discussion:

• What are the two main principles of classifying learner’s dictionaries?

• What are the most important British and American learner’s dictionaries?

• In what way do dictionaries compiled to meet the needs of learners of different levels of study of English differ in the scope of their word-list?

• What words are usually excluded and included in learner’s dictionaries?

• What criteria are used for the selection of words in learner’s dictionaries?

• What types of learner’s dictionaries can be singled out according to the information afforded in them?

• What are the peculiar features of the structure and content of the entry in learner’s dictionaries?

• What can you say about the order of arrangement of meanings in learner’s dictionaries?

• What does the supplementary material include in learner’s dictionaries?

Assignment 5. Mind you! You should make your analyses for every lesson in written form.

• Make analysis for the entry “welcome” (or any other) from English-English dictionary (see Schematic outline of entry analysis) from the “Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English by A. S. Hornby”.

• Analyse the entry “welcome” from the “MacMillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners” and compare the results.

Unit 2. Typology and function of linguistic dictionaries. Explanatory, monolingual dictionaries of the English speaking countries.

Literature:

1. Ступин Л.П. Лексикография английского языка. М., 1985.- С. 12-18, 118-136.

2. Лингвистический энциклопедический словарь. / Под ред. В.Н. Ярцевой.- М., СЭ, 2000.

3. Arnold I.V. The English word. M., 1986. - P. 261-266.

4. The Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary. Glasgow, 2004.

5. The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English.-UK, 2003.

6. The Longman Dictionary of the English Language and Culture.-UK, 2003

7. The Longman WordWise Dictionary.- UK, 2003.

8. The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology / Ed. By C.I. Onions -UK, 1995.

9. The Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms.-UK, 2002.

10. The Webster’s Dictionary of English Synonyms and Antonyms.-US, 2005

WORKING DEFINITIONS

of PRINCIPAL CONCEPTS

Concordance is an alphabetical list of all the words used in a book of one author with information about where they can be found and usually about how they are used.

Explanatory dictionary deals with the form, usage and meaning of words and provides all the information in the same language.

General dictionary contains multi-aspect word description, i.e. it represents the vocabulary as a whole with a degree of completeness depending upon the scope and the bulk of the dictionary in question.

Glossary is a unilingual book or list of words which records special terms, unusual or foreign words with explanations or translations.

Lexicon is synonymous to the word “dictionary”, in modern English it is better to use when speaking of dead / antique/ exotic language (e.g. Greek/ Latin/Arabic lexicon).

Order of arranging words can be subdivided into: alphabetical, ideographic, associative: alphabetical information is arranged in alphabetical order (e.g. Bosworth J., Toller T. Anglo-Saxon Dictionary; ideographic information is arranged in thematic (ideographic) principle (e.g. Roget’s International Thesaurus; associative information is arranged in sense associations (e.g. Ассоциативный тезаурус современного русского языка).

Reference book is intended to be used when you need a fact or a piece of information, for example a dictionary.

Restricted dictionaries reveal only some aspects of words or relations between them and the words are chosen according to: a) the sphere of human activity in which they are used, e.g. the Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary of Law; b) the type of the units themselves, e.g. the Oxford Concise Dictionary of Proverbs; c) relations existing between them, e.g. Webster’s Synonyms, Antonyms and Homonyms.

Specialized dictionary deals with lexical units only in relation to some of their characteristic features, i.e. only in relation to their etymology, pronunciation, usage, e.g. the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary.

Thesaurus / Ideographic dictionary is a dictionary in which words are not arranged alphabetically but grouped by the concepts expressed, e.g. Random House Roget’s College Thesaurus )

Vocabulary - 1) a list of words and expressions being compiled usually for educational purpose; 2) a dictionary, a sum of words being used by someone, or lexicon of a person.

Word book is a loan translation of German ‘Wörterbuch’ which is related to reference book.

Assignment 1. Make sure you can answer the following questions (based on the previous lecture):

• What do you know about the earliest manuscript glossaries?

• Who was the author of the first unilingual glossary? When was it published?

• Who was the author of the first etymological dictionary? What were its title and the date of publication?

• When was Samuel Johnson’s dictionary published?

• What was its full title?

• What was Samuel Johnson’s contribution to English lexicography?

Assignment 2. Read the text and try to use terms and information in your analysis:

Structure of a conventional dictionary and setting of its entry

The structural synchronic approach may be said to have grown into a whole system of procedures which can be used either successively or alternately. In general any contemporary conventional dictionary may include 6 main parts:

• an introduction or foreword;

• a guide to dictionary usage;

• a key to transcription system;

• a list of abbreviations and their explanations;

• the main list of words – the dictionary itself;

• supplementary material, e.g. proper names, geographical names, tables of measures and so on.

Strictly speaking dictionary structure is characterized by segmented arrangement of material: any word or group of words is followed by an independent text which is called a dictionary entry. It can be continuous, unbroken or it may be spit into zones of the main and additional information.

As far as the structure of a dictionary entry is concerned it depends on the type and function of a dictionary. A dictionary entry consists of a headword and all the information about it, e.g., description of grammar, semantic styles and functional peculiarities of a word; documentary justifying and proving that no word exists in a language without examples: citations, illustrations are indicated there.

A headword (main entry word, catchword) is the word you look up in a dictionary. It is the name of the words listed alphabetically through the dictionary.

The headword of the entry is given in its initial form: infinitive for English and Russian verbs, the 1^st person singular for Greek and Latin verbs.

A definition is the part of an entry which describes a particular meaning and usage of the headword. There may be one or more definitions in the entry. If there is more than one definition, then each one is numbered.

As to monolingual / explanatory dictionary explanation is presented with ideally the same number of semes as in the left part.

Definitions reflect the nearest notions they are not the same as in encyclopaedic dictionary. In some types of dictionaries (ideographic, synonymous) notion is presented. The word “ideographic” is originated from Greek: “idea” – “concept”, “notion”, “grapho” I write”, the whole word means ‘I write notion”.

Compounds (words made up of at least two root-morphemes) and derivatives (words made up of one root-morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes) are given at the end of the entry.

The symbol □ (a box) shows the change from one part- of- speech class to another.

The symbol → (an arrow) stands for a cross-reference; it invites you to look somewhere else in the dictionary to notice a connection between two words.

The symbol ~ (a tilde) is used instead of repeating the headword in the text of an entry, in example sentences.

The symbol /(a slant) is used to show alternative words in example phrases, sentences, and idioms.

The symbol (.) (brackets) is used to show optional words, words which may be used but which are not essential.

The symbol = means “…is the same as…” and is used to show an alternative word or spelling.

Abbreviations most often used in any dictionary are:

adj – adjective pron – pronoun

adv – adverb pp – past participle

[C] – countable noun pt –past tense

esp – especially sb- somebody

eg – example sing –singuar

GB – Great Britain sth – something

ie – in other words [U] –uncountable noun

n – noun US –American

pl – plural vi –intransitive verb

prep – preposition vt –transitive verb

Type-face: A type-face is a special way of printing words in a dictionary entry. There are seven different type-faces used in the information given in the “Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary”.

• Large Bold Type is used to print headwords;

• Phonetic Type is used for the phonetic presentation of the word;

• Sanserif Type (гротéсковый) is used to print grammatical changes, and after the signs “→ ” and “ = ” (for cross-references and alternative spellings);

• Ordinary type is used to print definitions;

• Ordinary Italic Type is used for example phrases or sentences;

• Bold Type is used to print derivatives and compounds;

• Bold Italic Type is used to print idiomatic expressions.

Meta language. Conceptual part.

In any language lexicography there is a special meta language. Meta language is a set of typical formulas to describe a word meaning.

Besides meta language of a dictionary may include explanations, special marks such as short forms, labels, special signs, grammar codes.

Dictionary explanation can be divided into:

- logical (a square is a rectangle with equal sides),

- linguistic (through synonyms: oblique – not straight),

- objective (quarter is the fourth part of the year),

- having word-building formula (lioness – a female lion).

Explanations and translations are made more precisely by examples, marks and illustrations.

Let’s explain special marks in detail: 1) short forms are abbreviations: sth, sb, E-east, W-west;

2) labels are subdivided into: a) words which are used mainly or only in one region or country: AmE, BrE, CanE, IndE; b) words which are used in English but they are still borrowings for they are not completely assimilated: French, Latin, Greek; c) of particular situation usage such as: formal, informal, humorous, approving; d) of particular context: biblical, old-fashioned, old use, slang, taboo, trademark;

3) special signs or symbols are used to denote, for example, pronunciation

|| sign of parallel separates pronunciation in Britain and in USA: class [' klα:s] || [klæs]

' – main stress

˛ – secondary stress

► stess shift

[ ] – square brackets contain transcription of the headword.

Signs are usually used to substitute words or a word, e.g. a mark over the ['ñ] in Spanish that pronounces quite differently than [n] without this sign.

~ swung-dash is used to substitute for a headword or initial form of a word in compounds, e.g. 1) sleeping: ~ bag, ~ car, ~ pill;

2) editor: ~ in -chief.

◊ rhomb(us) is used for idioms or phraseological units;

4) grammar codes – such abbreviations are used to denote the following words: a – attributive; c – countable; α – an adjective that is used only following the noun, it is described usually after be or another verb marked “v”; e.g. The children are asleep.

Pl - plural, sg – singular; e.g. She rides a Mercedes.

Dictionaries can use different types of scripts, tables, illustrations, graphical tools.

Individual approach is quite obvious to any dictionary besides it contains type, volume and different lexicographical parameters development.

Conceptual part of a dictionary is either implicitly realized in the very structure of a dictionary or explicitly explained in an introductory part. Different lexicographic parameters are reflected in specific language, lexicographic traditions and individual views of lexicographers.

The problem of choice is quite important in lexicography. Dictionaries are divided according to its information into:

extensive – i.e. maximum units, number and coverage;

reflective – i.e. restricting the choice of units due to the name of a dictionary.

In comparison with another classification (L.V. Varpachovitch and I.V. Zykova) due to information dictionaries should be divided into explanatory and specialized ones.

The choice of words in a dictionary is based upon texts analyses, colloquial speech, patterns study plus individual experience of lexicographers.

The main problems of lexicography are dealt with the selection of headwords, the arrangement and contents of the vocabulary entry, the principles of sense definitions and the semantic and functional classification of words.

Problems of a dictionary selecting

First of all you ought to decide for what purpose you are in search of a dictionary, secondary you ought to bear in mind merits and drawbacks of any dictionary; thirdly 3 main factors should be taken into consideration such as: date of publication, dedication and editorial team.

Date of publication is quite essential and important factor for the given dictionary. Where should we find it? It’s indicated on the reverse side of the title page (in English editions). It’s important to differentiate between new edition and new reprinting. New edition is a version which has been revised and improved. New reprinted edition presupposes that it has been only reprinted without revision of the dictionary.

Dedication is meant for whom it is prepared. It must be explained explicitly in the foreword. So an introductory part of any dictionary explains clearly

for whom it’s designed, e.g. the “Oxford Students Dictionary of Current English” has been specially prepared for those learning English up to intermediate or advanced levels: for teachers of English, students, senior pupils.

Editorial team is no less important in selecting a dictionary. It means that the author’s group which has contributed to making of the dictionary is very important, especially when names of prominent scientists, linguist are mentioned.

Assignment 3. Answer the questions to the text:

• What is structure of any conventional dictionary?

• What is the term ‘dictionary’ used to denote?

• Why is it necessary that each entry must be self-contained?

• Speak on entry’s structure of any linguistic dictionary.

• What is meta language of a dictionary?

• What is conceptual part of a dictionary?

• What does selection of dictionary depend on?

• What is the problem of words choice in a dictionary?

• Types of dictionary’s definitions.

Assignment 4. Find the entry for the word “control” in the “Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English.-UK, 2003” and in the “Webster’s Dictionary of English Synonyms and Antonyms.-US, 2005”. Make analysis of these entries, compare it. For further information consult Unit 1.

Main problems of lexicography

Lexicography is a part of applied linguistic dealing with theory and practice of compiling dictionaries

Theoretical lexicography studies the problems of: developing of general typology of dictionaries and making dictionaries of new types development of dictionary macrostructure development of dictionary microstructure

Practical lexicography (dictionary making) studies the problems of: description and normalization of language providing intercultural communication teaching language (both native and foreign) scientific studying vocabulary of a language