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LAW: WHAT IS IT?

Law is a body of official rules and regulations. It is generally found in constitutions, legislation and judicial decisions. Law is used to govern a society and to control the behaviour of its members. The nature and functions of law have varied throughout history. In modern societies,

some authorized body such as a legislature or a court makes the law. It is supported by the coercive power of the state, which enforces the law by means of appropriate penalties or remedies.

Formal legal rules and actions are usually distinguished from other means of social control and guides for behaviour such as morality, public opinion, and custom or tradition. Of course, a lawmaker may respond to public opinion or other pressures, and a formal law may prohibit what is morally unacceptable.

Law serves a variety of functions. Laws against crimes, for example, help to maintain a peaceful, orderly, relatively stable society. Courts contribute to social stability by resolving disputes in a civilized fashion. Property and contract laws facilitate business activities. Laws limit the powers of government and help to provide some degree of freedom that would not otherwise be possible. Law has also been used as a mechanism for social change; for instance, at various times laws have been passed to improve the quality of individual life in matters of health, education, and welfare.

2. Підберіть відповідні еквіваленти перекладу:

1) judicial decision	A) з точки зору
2) remedy	B) наприклад
3) lawmaker	C) судове рішення
4) in a civilized fashion	D) примусове виконання
5) for instance	E) цивілізовано
6) coercive	F) примусовий
7) in the view	G) законотворець
8) enforcement	H) засіб судового захисту
9) legislature	I) суд
10) courts	J) законодавство

3. Знайдіть пояснення терміну:

1) law	A) a punishment imposed for breaking a law, rule, or contract
2) legislature	B) laws that regulate matters of buying, selling, leasing, etc. of any real estate
3) state	C) the government or the country
4) behaviour	D) as usual it is a main law document of the country
5) lawmakers	E) some authorized body
6) property law	F) those who creates laws
7) welfare	G) a body of official rules and regulations
8) constitutions	H) the way a person acts or makes something
9) penalty	I) a means of legal reparation
10) remedy	J) prosperity of a person or a country

4. Дайте відповіді на питання:

1. Why do some laws appear to differ from common sense?

2. Why are laws usually international, unlike social or national customs?

3. Give your own example of a law that you don’t agree with, if any?

4. Try to create your own definition of law.

5. Where can laws be generally found?

6. What laws do you know?

7. Does law have a variety of functions?

8. Who resolves disputes in a civilized fashion?

9. What area of law does facilitate business activities?

10. What does formal law prohibit?

ІІІ. Граматичний матерал

Тема: Займенники.

Вправа 1. Замініть виділені слова особовими та питальними займенниками.

1. Columbo is a detective. ________________________________________________

2. A detective investigates crimes. __________________________________________

3. Detective stories are interesting. _________________________________________

4. My sister’s friend is a shy person. ________________________________________

5. Our neighbours are kind. ________________________________________________

6. I learn English. ________________________________________________________

7. Grammar is boring but nessessary. _________________________________________

8. Our teacher’s name is William. ____________________________________________

9. Learning English is easy. _________________________________________________

10. The students in my group are helpful. ______________________________________

Впарва 2. Перекладіть займенники подані у дужках.

1. Keep (твої) books on the shelves. 2. (Твої) hands are very dirty. 3. (Його) poems are very good. 4. These are (її) photos. 5. Where are (твої) friends now? 6. (Мої) students are at the lecture. 7. Are these (твої) newspapers?

Практичне заняття № 2

Тема: Освіта в Великобританії і США

І. Робота над текстом за темою заняття.

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Compulsory education begins at 5, and children attend primary school until they are 11. Normally the primary school is divided into Infants (5—7) and Juniors (7—11). At the age of 11 most children go to a comprehensive school where they stay until they are 16. In the past children went to different types of secondary schools, but in most parts of the country everybody now goes to a comprehensive. Some parents, who do not want their children to go to a comprehensive pay to send them to a private school. The most expensive and prestigious private schools are actually called public schools. At the age of 16 people take their examinations. Most take General Certificate of Education (G.С.E.). Ordinary Levels — normally called just 'O' Levels. People take 'O' Levels in as many subjects as they want to; some take one or two, others take as many as nine or ten. If you get good 'O' Level results, you can stay on at school until you are 18, in the Sixth Form. Here you prepare for Advanced Level Exams ('A' Levels). Again, you take as many of these as you want to, but most people take two or three. In case you pass your exams well you have a chance of going on to university though this is not automatic. The number of people who study there is strictly controlled. Other types of further education are offered at polytechnics and colleges of higher education. Polytechnics offer the chance to study subjects in a more practical way, and many colleges of higher education specialize in teacher training.

2. Вивчіть наступні слова

Compulsory education – обов’язкова освіта

primary school – початкова школа

Infants (5—7) – учні початкової школи від 5 до 7 років

Juniors (7—11) – учні початкової школи від 5 до 7 років

comprehensive school – загальноосвітня школа

public schools – закритий приватний навчальний заклад

General Certificate of Education – атестат про загальну середню освіту

Ordinary Levels – іспит з програми середньої школи за загальним рівнем Advanced Level Exams – іспит з програми середньої школи ускладненого рівня

polytechnics and colleges – політехнічний інститути та коледжі

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THE US EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

Education is not mentioned in the Constitution, nor is there any federal department of education, so the matter is left to individual states. Education is free and compulsory in all states, however, from the age of 6 till 16 (or 18).At 6 years of age children begin the first year of elementary school, which is called grade 1 or first grade (the second year is "grade 2", etc). At elementary school the emphasis is placed on the basic skills (speaking, reading, writing and arithmetic), though the general principle throughout the American school system is that children should be helped and encouraged to develop their own particular interests.Children move on to high school in the ninth grade, where they continue until the twelfth grade. There are two basic types of high school: one with a more academic curriculum,preparing students for admission to college, and the other offering primarily vocational education (training in a skill or trade). The local school board decides which courses are compulsory. There is great freedom of choice, however, and an important figure in high schools is the guidance counsellor, who advises the students on what courses to take on the basis of their career choices and frequent aptitude and ability tests.In order to receive the high school diploma necessary in most states to get into college, students must accumulate a minimum number of credits, which are awarded for the successful completion of each one — or half-year course. Students hoping to be admittedto the more famous universities require far more than the minimum number of credits and must also have good grades (the mark given on the basis of course work and a written examination). Extra-curricular activity (such as playing for one of the school's sports teams) is also very important in the American school system and is taken into consideration by colleges and employers.

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DEVELOPMENT OF LAW

Law develops as society evolves. Historically, the simplest societies were tribal. The members of the tribe were bonded together initially by kinship and worship of the same gods. Even in the absence of courts and legislature there was law — a blend of custom, morality, religion, and magic. The visible authority was the ruler, or chief; the highest authorities were the gods whose will was revealed in the forces of nature and in the revelations of the tribal head or the priests. Wrongs against the tribe, such as sacrilege or breach of tribal custom, were met with sanctions, and, the tribe members thought, with the wrath of the gods. People appeased the gods in ritualistic ceremonies ending perhaps in sacrifice or expulsion of the wrongdoer. Wrongs against individuals, such as murder, theft, adultery, or failure to repay a debt, were avenged by the family of the victim, often in actions against the family of the wrongdoer. Revenge of this kind was based on tribal custom, a major component of early law. Tribal society gradually evolved into territorial confederations. Governmental structures emerged, and modern law began to take shape. The most significant historical example is Roman law, which influenced most of the legal systems of the world.

The common law systems of England, and later of the U.S., developed in a different manner. Before the Norman Conquest (1066), England was a loose confederation of societies, the laws of which were largely tribal and local. The Anglo-Norman rulers created a system of centralized courts that operated under a single set of laws. This legal system, known as the common law of England, began with common customs, but over time it involved the courts in lawmaking (in response to changes in society).

1. Підберіть відповідні еквіваленти перекладу:

1) tribe	A) плем’я
2) worship	B) евтаназія
3) priest	C) поклоніння
4) sacrilege	D) визначний
5 sacrifice	E) святотатство
6) counsel	F) захисник
7) euthanasia	G) священик
8) significant	H) жертва
9) victim	I) правова система
10) legal system	J) принесення в жертву

2. Знайдіть пояснення терміну:

1) tribe	A) religious rites or ceremonies, constituting a formal expression of reverence for a deity
2) kinship	B) a body of people presided over by a judge, judges, or magistrate, and acting as a tribunal in civil and criminal cases
3) worship	C) blood relationship
4) authority	D) the power or right to give orders, make decisions, and enforce obedience
5) wrongs	E) the aggregate of people living together in a more or less ordered community
6) wrongdoer	F) a social division in a traditional society consisting of families or communities linked by social, economic, religious, or blood ties, with a common culture and dialect, typically having a recognized leader
7) society	G) a person who behaves illegally or dishonestly; an offender
8) court	H) unjust, dishonest, or immoral actions
9) customs	I) legislative
10) lawmaking	J) a traditional and widely accepted way of behaving or doing something that is specific to a particular society, place, or time