Couldn’t

Is possible in all situations (не мог, не умел, не смог):

He couldn’t beat anybody.

He couldn’t beat Alf.

2. to say that something is possible (due to circumstances, rules, laws or theoretically), it’s a fact:

You can use countable nouns in the plural (= It is grammatically correct to do it).

You can see the forest through the other window (= It is possible for you to do it).

Note 1. could do smth. either refers the action to the past:

We lived in a nice house and could see the sea from its windows.

or expresses unreality with reference to the present or future (мог бы):

You could see the house from here if it were not so dark (= As it is dark, you cannot see the house).

Note 2. could have done smth. indicates that a possible action was not carried out:

He could have won the competition but unfortunately fell ill the day before (= There was such a possibility but the illness prevented him from winning).

Note 3. could not have done smth. means that someone wouldn’t have been able to do smth even if he had tried:

The football match was cancelled last week. Tom couldn’t have played anyway as he was ill.

3. to ask for permission. It implies either

a request: Can I use your car? / Can you lend me your car? Could I use your car? (more polite) Could you tell me the right time? Typical responses: Certainly. Yes, certainly. Of course. Yes, of course, I can. Sure. (informal) Oh no, you can’t, I’m afraid.

or an offer: Can I help you, ma’am? (= I offer my help) Typical responses: Certainly. Yes, certainly. Of course. Yes, of course. Sure. (informal) Oh no, thank you.

4. to give permission/prohibition:

You can use my car (Mind: no could in present-time contexts).

He said I could use his car.

May I speak to the Dean? – No, I’m afraid, you can’t.

You can’t smoke in this room (= It’s not allowed to smoke here).

5. to express supposition (only could).

He could have come. (= I suppose that he has come, but I’m not sure). = Возможно/ может быть/ я предполагаю, что он пришел.

He could be sleeping, I don’t know exactly.

6. to express doubt, astonishment in interrogative sentences; negative logical assumptions in negative sentences. It can be followed by different infinitive forms:

Can he really be ill? = Неужели он действительно болен?

Could he really be ill? (less categorical).

Can/could he really have said it? (refers to the past) = Неужели он это сказал?

Can/could she be still sleeping? = Неужели она все еще спит?

Can/could he have failed to notice anything?/ Can/could he have noticed nothing? = Неужели он ничего не заметил?

It can’t/ couldn’t be true. = Вряд ли это правда, это не может быть правдой.

He can't/couldn't have been waiting for us all this time. = Вряд ли он ждал нас все это время.

He can’t/couldn’t have failed to notice it. = Вряд ли он этого не заметил.

They can’t dislike you. = Ты не можешь им не нравиться.

Typical mistakes Неужели она ничего не знает? Can she not know anything?* Correct: Can/could she know nothing? Ты не можешь не нравиться его матери. His mother can’t not like you.* Correct: His mother can’t/couldn’t dislike you? Неужели она это сделала? Could she do this? * Correct: Can/could she have done this? Неужели она этого не сделала? Can she not have done this?* Couldn't she do this?* Correct: Can/could she have failed to do this?

7. to make suggestions (mostly could; can is informal):

You could try phoning her at the office.

We could go to the cinema.

8. to ask emotionally-coloured special questions (to express puzzlement, impatience, etc.):

What can/could he mean? = Что он, собственно, имеет в виду?/ Что бы это означало?

What can/could he be doing?

How can you say such things?

Who can tell? = Кто может знать?

9. before verbs of sense perception (usually not translated; not be able to):

Can you see her? = Ты ее видишь?

I can hear somebody whistling. = Я слышу, как кто-то свистит.

MAY negative form: may not past form: might, might not / mightn’t

We use may

1. to ask for and give / refuse permission:

May I come in?

I’ll begin if I may.

Might I join you? (more polite than may even shy).

He told me that I might smoke in the room (in past-time contexts).

You may smoke in here.

You may not smoke in here.

Compare with can/ could:

May I do smth.? formal = Do you permit me to do it?: May I come in? (= I’ll come in only if you allow me to do it?) You may do smth. = I give you my permission to do it. You may not do smth. = I don’t allow you to do it.

Can I do smth.? informal: Can I use your pen? = Ручку возьму? is it possible according to some rules, laws, etc.: Can I drink this water? – Yes. It’s drinking water. You can do smth. = I have nothing against it. Do if you want to. it is not prohibited: You can drive a car in Britain if you are over 17. You cannot do smth. refusal: You can’t go out so late. it’s prohibited: You can’t drive a car in Britain if you are under 17.

Could I do smth.? more polite than can (implies request): Could I ask you a personal question? ------------ ------------

2. to express supposition. It is used both in affirmative and negative sentences; with different infinitive forms (= Can 5). Might expresses even more uncertainty:

He may/might come soon (= I suppose that he’ll come soon, but I’m not sure). = Возможно/ может быть/ я предполагаю, что он скоро придет.

He may/might be sleeping, I don’t know exactly.

Compare: may not and can’t:

He may not be sleeping (= I’m not sure whether he’s sleeping or not).

He can’t be sleeping (=I’m sure he’s not sleeping).

Note 1. May is not used in questions. Might / could or even can are used instead:

Who can / could / might these flowers be from?

Typical mistake Он может скоро прийти. He can come soon.* Correct: He may/might/could come soon.

3. to express possibility due to circumstances (= Can 2). It is followed by simple infinitives and is used only in affirmative sentences:

In this museum you may see some interesting things (= you can see…).

He said I might see a lot of interesting things there (reported speech).

Come what may = Будь, что будет.

Note 1. Can in this meaning is used in any sentence:

Can you meet him here? (= Is it possible that you’ll meet him here?)

You can’t meet Jim at the office today. Today’s his day-off.

Note 2. might have done indicates that a possible past action was not carried out due to circumstances (= could have done also see Can 2. Note 2):

He might (could) have fallen ill if he had not taken the medicine.

4. to express disapproval, reproach (only might):

might do: the situation can still be changed:

You might carry my bag (the bag I’m carrying now). It’s too heavy for a woman. = Мог бы и помочь мне нести мою сумку.

might have done: nothing can be changed now:

You might have helped me yesterday.

5. to make suggestions:

may/might as well: let’s do it but only because there’s nothing better to do or there’s no reason why we shouldn’t do it (Compare with Can 7.):

We may (might) as well go to this party. We’ve nothing else to do. = Мы вполне можем пойти на эту вечеринку.

6.in wishes:

Long may he live. = Желаем ему долгих лет жизни.

May you be very happy. = Желаю Вам счастья.

MUST negative form: must not / mustn’t in past reported speech: had to but not in orders and positive logical assumptions: He said he had to be in a hurry (He was obliged to). BUT: He said that I must do it immediately (He ordered me to do it). He said it must have been difficult for Mary to get the job. (He was sure of it).

We use must

1. to express positive logical assumptions. It is used only in affirmative sentences; with different infinitive forms:

He looks so pale. He must be ill (= I’m sure he’s ill. I can see it). = Должно быть, вероятно, очевидно, я уверен, что он болен.

Ybbbour examinations are next week. You must be studying a lot at the moment.

It must have been raining all the night. There’re big puddles in the garden.

Compare with may (See May 2.):

He hasn’t come yet. But it’s high time he came. He may be ill (I’m not sure).

Note 1. Must is not used with the reference to the future. Someone’ll probably/ evidently do; someone is sure / bound to do can be used instead:

He’ll probably come tomorrow. He promised he would come on Sunday.

He’s sure to come back. All his things are here.

Note 2. Must in this meaning is not used in negative sentences with the particle ‘not’. Still other ways of expressing negation are acceptable:

You must have misunderstood me. I didn’t mean that. = Вероятно, вы меня не поняли.

She must have never read the book. = Я уверена, что она не читала эту книгу.

Nobody must have told him about it. = Должно быть, ему об этом не сказали.

Note 3. To make a logical assumption which is negative, we use cannot/ could not (less categorical) which can be followed by different infinitive forms (See Can 6):

You can’t/ couldn’t be hungry already. We had breakfast half an hour ago and you said you were full up (= I’m sure that it’s impossible for you to get hungry so soon).

Compare:

Я предполагаю и уверен, что это так (approx. 95% sure) Я предполагаю, но не уверен, что это так (approx. 50% sure) Я предполагаю и уверен, что это не так (approx. 95% sure) Я предполагаю, но не уверен, что это не так (approx. 50% sure)

m ust may/ might / could + different infinitive forms can’t / couldn’t may not

Должно быть, она опоздала на поезд. = She must have missed the train.

А, может быть, она опоздала на поезд. = She may / might / could have missed the train.

Она не могла опоздать на поезд (я уверен, что она не опоздала) = She can’t / couldn’t have missed the train.

Возможно, она не опоздала на поезд. = She may not miss the train.

Typical mistakes 1.Она должно быть очень страдает. She must suffer a lot.* Correct: She must be suffering a lot. 2.Он, должно быть, ничего не знает. He mustn’t know anything.* Correct: He must know nothing. 3. Она, должно быть, не записала ваш адрес. She must not have written your address.* Correct: She can't have written / must have failed to write down your address. 4.Она, скорее всего, придет через десять минут. She must come in ten minutes.* Correct: She’ll probably come in ten minutes.

2. to express a rule or regulation about things which are absolutely necessary to do or not to do (also in formal written notices):

When you drive you must stop at a red light and mustn’t overtake on a bend.

This door must not be left open (a formal written notice).

3. to express obligation from the speaker’s point of view. In affirmative sentences it implies order:

You must talk to your daughter about her future (The speaker personally feels that it’s necessary to do, it implies order).

Must he do it? (= Do you personally think it’s necessary for him to do it?)

I must work hard to pass the exam (I personally think it’s necessary for me).

4. to express prohibition (in negative sentences):

You mustn’t tell anyone what I said (= It’s necessary that you do not tell anyone).

Note 1. Must is not used to express absence of necessity. Someone need not/ doesn’t need to/ doesn’t have to do can be used instead (see Need 1, Have to 1):

You don’t need to tell anyone the news. I’ve just done it myself.

Compare with can, may (see Can. 4, May. 1):

You must not do smth. from the speaker’s point of view it’s necessary: You must not be late for the interview. It’s your only opportunity to get the job.

You cannot do smth. it’s prohibited due to generally accepted rules: You cannot be late for classes.

You may not do smth. the speaker doesn’t allow smth.: You may not be late for dinner today. Do not ask me about it.

5. to give emphatic advice (the meaning of obligation is weakened):

You must come and see us when you are in London.

You mustn’t miss the film. It’s very good.

6. in set-phrases:

I must be going/ be off. = Мне пора.

I must tell you that…

You must admit.

NEED can be used as a defective verb (esp. in negative sentences): You needn’t do it. and as a regular verb (esp. in American English): You don’t need to do it.

We use need:

1. to express necessity (the meaning is rare) / absence of necessity

You needn’t hurry. You’ve got plenty of time. (= It’s not necessary for you to hurry.)

Compare with mustn’t (see Must 4):

You mustn’t hurry. (= It’s necessary that you don’t hurry. I order you not to hurry.)

Note 1. needn’t have done means that someone did something not knowing that it wasn’t necessary, it was a waste of time / effort:

Tom wanted to catch a train. He left home late, so he hurried to the station. But the train was also late – it didn’t leave until 20 minutes after Tom arrived at the station. So Tom needn’t have hurried but he did it as he didn’t know that the train would be late. (= Том спешил зря.)

Note 2. didn’t need to is different from needn’t have done, it means that an action was unnecessary and it was known at the time of the action:

I didn’t need to go there but I decided to go anyway. (= Мне не нужно было идти туда.)

2. to express permission not to do something (the speaker gives authority for the non-performance of the action) (compare with Can 4, May 1):

Shall I type this letter now? – No, you needn’t. You can do it later.

HAVE TO is not defective. It has all analytical forms and verbals: Having to work alone, he wanted all his time for his research. Why do I have to do everything by myself? He didn’t have to work alone. Everybody was ready to give him a helping hand.

We use have to

1. to express obligation or necessity due to circumstances:

She has to wear glasses for reading (= It’s necessary to her to wear glasses because without glasses she can’t read. She’s short-sighted).

Note 1. have got to do is used to talk about a specific occasion:

I’ve got to hurry up. Mary is waiting for me.

Compare with must (see Must 3):

She must wear glasses (I personally think so. Otherwise she might ruin her eyesight completely).

2. to express absence of necessity (in negative sentences) (= Need 1):

Jill used to wear glasses. But after the operation she doesn’t have to (OR doesn’t need to) wear glasses any longer.

John watered the flowers. That’s why Jane didn’t have to (OR didn’t need to) do it.

Compare with needn’t do (see Need 2):

You needn’t go there. I’ll manage everything without your help (the speaker gives authority for the non-performance of the action)

You don’t have to go to school today. It’s Sunday (the absence of necessity is based on external circumstances).

Compare didn’t have to and needn’t have done (see Need 1. Note 1):

Jane was going to water the flowers but suddenly it started to rain. That’s why she didn’t have to water the flowers.

Jane needn’t have watered the flowers because it started to rain soon after (Jane watered the flowers but it was a waste of time and effort).

BE TO is not defective

We use be to:

1. to express obligation resulting from a previously arranged plan or agreement (in affirmative and interrogative sentences). It may express the idea that someone else demands it:

Who was to speak at the meeting?

I am to be at the airport at 9.00. (My boss has told me to go there, so I can’t avoid it.)

Note 1. was/ were to have done means that the plan was not fulfilled or the arrangement was broken:

We were to have met him at the station but came late. He had already gone away by taxi.

Compare with was/ were to do:

We were to meet him at the station. (It’s not clear whether we met him or not).

Compare with must, have to (see Must 3, Have to 1):

must do smth. obligation from the speaker’s point of view: We must wait for them, I think (= I personally think it’s necessary).

have to do smth. obligation imposed by circumstances: We had to wait for them at the entrance as they had the tickets. (We couldn’t enter without them)

be to do smth. obligation resulting from an arrangement: We are to wait for them at the entrance (We’ve agreed to meet there/ we’ve been told to do it.).

2. in orders or instructions (often official) to express an arrangement made by one person for another:

This door is to remain locked at all times (=must: a notice on a door).

You are to go straight to your room (= Ты иди в свою комнату: a parent is scolding a child).

3. to talk about something that is thought of as unavoidable, destined to happen:

He didn’t know at that time that he was never to see his native place again (= …было не суждено…).

4. to express possibility (Also see Can 2, May 3) when it is

1. followed by passive infinitives:

Where is he to be found? (= А где его можно найти?).

Nothing was to be done under the circumstances.

2. followed by active infinitives in questions with How?:

How am I to know that you are telling the truth? (= Откуда мне знать (есть ли вероятность того), что Вы говорите правду?)

5. in emotional questions:

What am I to do? (= Что мне делать, Как мне быть?)

What’s to become of me? (= Что со мной будет?)

Where am I to go? (= Куда же мне идти?)

SHOULD/OUGHT TO negative form: should not/ shouldn’t; ought not to / oughtn’t to should is a completely defective verb ought to is partly defective, it is followed by the Infinitive with the particle ‘to’

We use should, ought to

1. to give advice. Should is more common, ought to - a little more emphatic as it emphasizes moral obligation or duty:

It’s late. You should go to bed. (=It would be a good thing to do).

Tom shouldn’t drive. He’s too tired. (= I don’t think it’s a right thing for him to do).

Should I talk to him? (Do you think it is a right thing to do?).

You oughtn’t to tell lies. (It’s immoral to tell lies).

Note 1. Should is not as strong as must (see Must 5):

Compare:

You should stop smoking (It would be a good thing to do).

You must stop smoking (It’s necessary that you stop smoking. I insist on it).

Note 2. Should is different from had better. ‘d better do is used to give advice about what should be done in the future in order to avoid some bad consequence:

You’d better stop smoking now. (Otherwise something bad might happen, for ex. we’ll be driven out of here).

2. to express criticism (followed by different infinitive forms):

a. to say that something is not right or not what we expected, that someone is doing the wrong thing:

Those children shouldn’t (oughtn’t to) be playing. They should be at school.

That motor-cyclist should be wearing a crash helmet.

b. to say that someone did the wrong thing. The modal is followed by perfect infinitives:

should have done, ought to have done indicate that a desirable action was not carried out;

should not have done, ought not to have done indicate that an undesirable action was carried out.

The party was great last night. You should’ve come. Why didn’t you?

She oughtn’t to have listened to our conversation. It was private.

3. to express probability, usually with the reference to the future; to say that something will probably happen, esp. of something the speaker wants (compare with Must 1):

She’s been studying hard. She should (ought to) pass her examination.

4. to say that something is naturally expected:

If it’s a story by Twain it should (ought to) be amusing.

5. to ask for or give opinion:

I don’t think you should (ought to) work so hard.

6. to sound emotional. Only should is used for this purpose:

Why should I do it? = С какой стати мне это делать?

How should I know? = Почем мне знать?

Why shouldn’t I have done that? = А почему бы мне было это не сделать?

I don’t know why he should want to see him. = Я не знаю, с какой стати он хочет его видеть.

The door opened and who should come in but Tom. = Дверь открылась, и кто бы вы думали (по-вашему) вошел? Никто иной как Том.

7. Should can be used in subordinate clauses after ‘suggest, propose, recommend, insist, demand, etc.’:

What do you suggest he should do?/ he do (it’s an infinitive!!!)? (US)

Tom insisted that she should buy a car.

WILL no contracted affirmative form negative form: will not / won’t past form: would, would not / wouldn’t

We use will:

1. to ask someone to do something (in interrogative sentences, with the 2^nd person) in polite requests with the shade of instruction:

Will you shut the door?

Won’t you sit down?

Would you stop talking? (more polite)

Typical responses:

Yes, I’d be happy to / be glad to.

Certainly.

Sure. (informal)

Compare with can, could (see Can 3):

Can/ could you shut the door? (The speaker is not sure the request will be complied with).

2. to express refusal to do something (in negative sentences):

I won’t be operated on. (= Я ни за что не соглашусь на операцию).

I told the doctor that I wouldn’t be operated on.

3. to ask whether a thing performs or say that it fails to perform its function (in questions and negative sentences):

Will this printer do double-sided copies?

The pen won’t write. (= Ручка не пишет).

4. to express will, intention, determination to do something (in affirmative and negative sentences, with the 1^st person):

I’m going to get out of this hole. I will make money.

5. to talk about habitual or recurrent actions, esp. in a disapproving way (would is characteristic of literary English narratives):

He will leave that door open every time he goes through!

She would sit for hours looking through the window (= Она часами просиживала, смотря в окно).

Compare with used to do, which is used to talk about something someone did in the past but doesn’t do any longer now:

I used to read a lot (but not now).

6. in clauses of condition introduced by ‘if’ where it expresses willingness, consent:

No, we are not going to quarrel at all if you will only let me talk (… если только ты дашь (согласишься дать) мне сказать).

7. to express prediction (only will) with the reference to the present or future (followed by simple infinitives), processes (followed by progressive infinitives) and to the past (followed by perfect infinitives) (compare with Must 1, Should 3):

This will be the school, I believe (= Это, по-видимому, и есть школа).

Don’t phone her now. She will be sleeping (Она, по всей вероятности, сейчас спит)

You will have heard the news, I think (Вы, по-видимому, уже слышали новость).

It also expresses general predictions about things that always happen:

A dog will growl when it’s angry or frightened.

8. to comment on someone’s action, to say sarcastically that it was to be expected (only would):

She’s been very brave. Yes, she would be brave (= Это на нее похоже, этого и следует ожидать).

9. in some set phrases:

I won’t have you do this (= I’ll see to it that it doesn’t happen. = Я не допущу …).

I’d rather do it myself (= I’d prefer to do it myself).

You would, would you? = Ах, ты так.

SHALL no contracted affirmative form negative form: shall not/ shan’t

We use shall

1. in offers (in interrogative sentences with the 1^st person singular):

A: Shall I switch on the lights? (= Do you want me to switch on the lights?)

B: Yes, do (please)/ Oh no, thank you.

2. in suggestions (in interrogative sentences with the 1^st person plural)

A : Shall we have some more coffee?

B.: Yes, let’s/ No, I’d rather not.

3.asking for instruction:

I’ve got no money. What shall I do? (= What do you suggest I should do?)

Who shall answer the telephone?

4.in directives but this use is very formal and rare:

‘You shall be punished,’ said Mrs Marline. ‘You shall go to your room and stay there without a light when it is dark.’

DARE negative form: dare not / daren’t past form: dared, dared not can be used as a defective verb: You daren’t tell him the truth. How dare she read my diary! as a regular verb: He didn’t dare to meet his uncle. Do you dare to tell him? as a partly defective verb (followed by bare infinitives): He didn’t dare lie to his father. Do you dare tell him?

We use dare:

1. to say that someone has the courage or impertinence to do something (in exclamations with How):

How dare you say that!

How dared she say that!

2. to express lack of courage to do something:

I daren’t ask for money.

I don’t dare (to) ask for money.

I hardly dare tell him what happened.

I dared not say that.

I didn’t dare (to) say that.

No one dared to live in the house since.

3. to challenge someone to do something (in children’s language):

I dare you to jump off the wall. (Not …you jump…)

4. in the idiomatic expression ‘I daresay’ which means ‘I think it’s probably true’:

I daresay the climate of the country is rather good.

SECTION 2

MODAL VERBS IN COMMUNICATION

There is no communication among people without expressing their attitudes to what they say and to one another. It means that we cannot manage without modals in everyday life. But those who speak English as a foreign language may have great difficulty choosing the correct modal verb to express exactly what they want to. These are the most common situations in which modals are helpful:

1. Asking for permission:

Can I ask you a question, please? (informal)

Could I (possibly) ask you a question, please? (more polite)

Can’t / Couldn’t I ask you a question? (if you want to put extra pressure on someone to give a positive answer)

I wonder if I could ask you a question. (very polite)

May I ask you a question, please? (formal)

Might I ask you a question, please? (very formal)

2. Giving / Refusing permission:

You can park your car here. (informal)

You may park your car in this area. (formal – usually written)

You can’t / mustn’t park your car here (informal, prohibition)

You may not park your car here (formal – usually written)

You needn’t do it. (permission not to do)

3. Making requests / instructions / orders:

Can you explain this to me? (informal)

Could / Would you explain this to me? (more polite)

Will you explain this to me? (polite instruction)

You must explain this to me. (very strict)

Can I have some water? (informal)

Could I have some water? (polite)

May I have some water? (formal)

Might I have some water? (very formal)

What shall I explain to you? (asking for instruction)

4. Making offers:

I’ll help you.

Can I help you?

Could I help you? (less certain that the offer will be accepted)

Shall I help you? (= Do you want me to help you?)

Would you like me to help you? (on a specific occasion)

5. Making and asking for suggestions:

Shall we visit Grandma this weekend?

We can / could visit Grandma this weekend.

We may as well visit Grandma this weekend. (because there’s nothing else to do)

Where shall we go? (=What’s your suggestion?)

Would you join us tomorrow? (invitation)

6. Giving advice:

You should / ought to study harder.

You really must come to see us (very strong and emphatic).

7. Criticizing:

You should / ought to have been more careful.

You might be more careful (= Be more careful now).

You might have been more careful (= You should have been more careful).

8. Expressing possibility / talking about facts (not specific occasions)

It can (sometimes) happen. (it’s a fact)

It could have happened. (It was possible but didn’t happen)

It couldn’t have happened. (There was no possibility that it would happen)

9. Expressing supposition:

Positive:

He may / might / could be sick. (all of them are uncertain, less than 50 % sure)

Can / could / might he be sick? (not may)

He should do well in the exam. (very certain, 90 % sure, refers to future)

That will be Nick. (prediction)

Negative:

He may not / might not be hungry.

10. Expressing logical assumptions

Positive:

He must be sick (very certain, 95 % sure)

Negative:

He can’t / couldn’t be sick. (very certain, 95 % sure)

11. Expressing obligation / necessity:

Positive:

We must get up early. (from the speaker’s point of view)

We are to get up early. (from a previously arranged plan or agreement)

We have to get up early. (from the situation)

We have to get up early tomorrow. (the necessity already exists)

We’ll have to get up early tomorrow if they phone us. (the necessity may or may not appear tomorrow)

We’ve got to get up early tomorrow. (from the situation, a specific occasion)

We need to get up early.

Negative:

We don’t need / have to get up early.