№ 12. Borrowings: Classification of borrowings according to the borrowed aspects

Contemporary English is a unique mixture of Germanic & Romanic elements. This mixing has resulted in the international character of the vocabulary. In the comparison with other languages English possesses great richness of vocabulary

All languages are mixtures to a greater or lesser extent, but the present day English vocabulary is unique in this respect.

A brief look on various historical strata of the English vocabulary:

1) Through cultural contacts with Romans partly already on the continent and all through the influence of Christianity a very early stratum of Latin-Greek words entered the language.

Their origin is no longer felt by the normal speaker today in such word: pound, mint, mustard, school, dish, chin, cleric, cheese, devil, pepper, street, gospel, and bishop.

The same can be said about some Scandinavian words (from about the 10th century) that today belong to the central core of the vocabulary.

It means that their frequency is very high.

They, their, them, sky, skin, skill, skirt, ill, dies, take...

They partly supersede the number of OE words

OE

• heofon – heaven (sky)

• Niman – take

• Steorfan – die

A more radical change & profound influence on the English vocabulary occurred on 1066 (Norman Conquest). Until the 15th cent., a great number of French words were adopted. They belong to the areas of court, church, law, and state.

Virtue, religion, parliament, justice, noble, beauty, preach, honour...

The influx of the words was the strongest up to the 15th cent., but continued up to the 17th cent.

Many French borrowings retained their original pronunciation & stress

• Champagne, ballet, machine, garage...

• Separate, attitude, constitute, introduce...

Adjectives in English – arrogant, important, patient

Sometimes with their derivatives:

• Demonstrative – demonstration

• Separate – separation

17-18 cc. due to the establishing of cultural, trade relations many words were borrowed from Italian, Spanish, Dutch, French.

Italian: libretto, violin, opera

Spanish: hurricane, tomato, tobacco

Dutch: yacht, dog, landscape

French: bouquet, buffet

From the point of view of their etymology formal words are normally of classical Romanic origin, informal – Anglo-Saxon.

Nowadays many Americanisms become familiar due to the increase of transatlantic travel & the influence of broadcast media.

Even in London (Heathrow airport) “baggage” instead of “luggage”

The present day English vocabulary is from being homogeneous.

Borrowing – 1) (process) resorting to the word-stock of other languages for words to express new concepts, to further differentiate the existing concepts and to name new objects, etc.; 2) (result) a loan word, borrowed word – a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language. – See Assimilation, Source of borrowing, Origin of borrowing. The following types of borrowings can be distinguished:

• - loan words proper – words borrowed from another language and assimilated to this or that extent;

• - loan translation – 1) (process) borrowing by means of literally translating words (usu. one part after another) or word combinations, by modelling words after foreign patterns; 2) (result) translation loans (calques) – words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the English language but according to patterns taken from another language by way of literal word-for-word or morpheme-for-morpheme translation: e.g. chain smoker::Germ Kettenraucher; goes without saying::Fr. va sans dire; summit conference:: Germ. Gipfel Konferenz, Fr. conférence au sommet;- semantic borrowings/loans – the term is used to denote the development in an English word of a new meaning due to the influence of a related word in another language (e.g. policy).

There are the following groups: phonetic borrowings, translation loans, semantic borrowings, and morphemic borrowings.

Phonetic borrowings are most characteristic in all languages; they are called loan words proper. Words are borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning.  Then they undergo assimilation, each sound in the borrowed word is substituted by the corresponding sound of the borrowing language. In some cases the spelling is changed. The structure of the word can also be changed. The position of the stress is very often influenced by the phonetic system of the borrowing language. The paradigm of the word, and sometimes the meaning of the borrowed word are also changed. Such words as: labour, travel, table, chair, people are phonetic borrowings from French; apparatchik, nomenklatura, sputnik are phonetic borrowings from Russian; bank, soprano, duet are phonetic borrowings from Italian etc.

Translation loans are word-for-word (or morpheme-for-morpheme) translations of some foreign words or expressions. In such cases the notion is borrowed from a foreign language but it is expressed by native lexical units, «to take the bull by the horns» (Latin), «fair sex» (French), «living space» (German) etc. Some translation loans appeared in English from Latin already in the Old English period, e.g. Sunday (solis dies). There are translation loans from the languages of Indians, such as: «pipe of peace», «pale-faced», from German «masterpiece», «homesickness», «superman».

Semantic borrowings are such units when a new meaning of the unit existing in the language is borrowed. It can happen when we have two relative languages which have common words with different meanings, e.g. there are semantic borrowings between Scandinavian and English, such as the meaning «to live» for the word «to dwell’ which in Old English had the meaning «to wander». Or else the meaning «дар», «подарок» for the word «gift» which in Old English had the meaning «выкуп за жену».

Semantic borrowing can appear when an English word was borrowed into some other language, developed there a new meaning and this new meaning was borrowed back into English, e.g. «brigade» was borrowed into Russian and formed the meaning «a working collective«,»бригада». This meaning was borrowed back into English as a Russian borrowing. The same is true of the English word «pioneer».

Morphemic borrowings are borrowings of affixes which occur in the language when many words with identical affixes are borrowed from one language into another, so that the morphemic structure of borrowed words becomes familiar to the people speaking the borrowing language, e.g. we can find a lot of Romanic affixes in the English word-building system, that is why there are a lot of words - hybrids in English where different morphemes have different origin, e.g. «goddess»,  «beautiful» etc.

Classification fo borrowings according to the degree of assimilation: The degree of assimilation of borrowings depends on the following factors: a) from what group of languages the word was borrowed, if the word belongs to the same group of languages to which the borrowing language belongs it is assimilated easier, b) in what way the word is borrowed: orally or in the written form, words borrowed orally are assimilated quicker, c) how often the borrowing is used in the language, the greater the frequency of its usage, the quicker it is assimilated, d) how long the word lives in the language, the longer it lives, the more assimilated it is.

Accordingly borrowings are subdivided into: completely assimilated, partly assimilated and non-assimilated (barbarisms).

Completely assimilated borrowings are not felt as foreign words in the language, if the French word «sport» and the native word «start». Completely assimilated verbs belong to regular verbs, e.g. correct -corrected. Completely assimilated nouns form their plural by means of s-inflexion, e.g. gate- gates. In completely assimilated French words the stress has been shifted from the last syllable to the last but one.

Semantic assimilation of borrowed words depends on the words existing in the borrowing language, as a rule, a borrowed word does not bring all its meanings into the borrowing language, if it is polysemantic, e.g. the Russian borrowing «sputnik» is used in English only in one of its meanings.

Partly assimilated borrowings are subdivided into the following groups: a) borrowings non-assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from the language of which they were borrowed, e.g. sari, sombrero, taiga, kvass etc.

b) Borrowings non-assimilated grammatically, e.g. nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek retain their plural forms (bacillus - bacilli, phenomenon - phenomena, datum -data, and genius - genii etc.

c) Borrowings non-assimilated phonetically. Here belong words with the initial sounds /v/ and /z/, e.g. voice, zero. In native words these voiced consonants are used only in the intervocal position as allophones of sounds /f/ and /s/ (loss - lose, life - live ). Some Scandinavian borrowings have consonants and combinations of consonants which were not palatalized, e.g. /sk/ in the words: sky, skate, ski etc (in native words we have the palatalized sounds denoted by the digraph «sh», e.g. shirt); sounds /k/ and /g/ before front vowels are not palatalized e.g. girl, get, give, kid, kill, kettle. In native words we have palatalization , e.g.  German, child.

Some French borrowings have retained their stress on the last syllable, e.g. police, and cartoon.  Some French borrowings retain special combinations of sounds, e.g. /a:3/ in the words : camouflage, bourgeois, some of them retain the combination of sounds /wa:/ in the words: memoir, boulevard.

d) borrowings can be partly assimilated graphically, e.g. in Greak borrowings «y» can be spelled in the middle of the word (symbol, synonym), «ph» denotes the sound /f/ (phoneme, morpheme), «ch» denotes the sound /k/(chemistry, chaos),«ps» denotes the sound /s/ (psychology).

Latin borrowings retain their polisyllabic structure, have double consonants, as a rule, the final consonant of the prefix is assimilated with the initial consonant of the stem, (accompany, affirmative).

French borrowings which came into English after 1650 retain their spelling, e.g. consonants «p», «t», «s» are not pronounced at the end of the word (buffet, coup, debris), Specifically French combination of letters «eau» /ou/ can be found in the borrowings: beau, chateau, troussaeu.  Some of digraphs retain their French pronunciation: ‘ch’ is pronounced as /sh/, e.g. chic, parachute, ‘qu’ is pronounced as /k/ e.g. bouquet, «ou» is pronounced as /u:/, e.g. rouge; some letters retain their French pronunciation, e.g. «i» is pronounced as /i:/, e,g, chic, machine; «g» is pronounced as /3/, e.g. rouge.

Modern German borrowings also have some peculiarities in their spelling: common nouns are spelled with a capital letter e.g. Autobahn, Lebensraum; some vowels and digraphs retain their German pronunciation, e.g. «a» is pronounced as /a:/ (Dictat), «u» is pronounced as /u:/ (Kuchen), «au» is pronounced as /au/ (Hausfrau), «ei» is pronounced as /ai/ (Reich); some consonants are also pronounced in the German way, e.g. «s» before a vowel is pronounced as /z/ (Sitskrieg), «v» is pronounced as /f/ (Volkswagen), «w» is pronounced as /v/ , «ch» is pronounced as /h/ (Kuchen).

Non-assimilated borrowings (barbarisms) are borrowings which are used by Englishmen rather seldom and are non-assimilated, e.g. addio (Italian), tete-a-tete (French), dolce vita (Italian), duende (Spanish), an homme a femme (French), gonzo (Italian) etc.

№ 13. Borrowings: Classification of borrowings according to the language

Among words of Romanic origin borrowed from Latin during the period when the British Isles were a part of the Roman Empire, there are such words as: street, port, wall etc. Many Latin and Greek words came into English during the Adoption of Christianity in the 6-th century. At this time the Latin alphabet was borrowed which ousted the runic alphabet. These borrowings are usually called classical borrowings.  Here belong Latin words: alter, cross, dean, and Greek words: church, angel, devil, and anthem.

Latin and Greek borrowings appeared in English during the Middle English period due to the Great Revival of Learning. These are mostly scientific words because Latin was the language of science at the time. These words were not used as frequently as the words of the Old English period, therefore some of them were partly assimilated grammatically, e.g. formula - formulae. Here also belong such words as: memorandum, minimum, maximum, veto etc.

Classical borrowings continue to appear in Modern English as well. Mostly they are words formed with the help of Latin and Greek morphemes. There are quite a lot of them in medicine (appendicitis, aspirin), in chemistry (acid, valency, alkali), in technique (engine, antenna, biplane, airdrome), in politics (socialism, militarism), names of sciences (zoology, physics). In philology most of terms are of Greek origin (homonym, archaism, lexicography).

French borrowings: The largest groups of borrowings are French borrowings. Most of them came into English during the Norman Conquest. French influenced not only the vocabulary of English but also its spelling, because French scribes wrote documents as the local population was mainly illiterate, and the ruling class was French. Runic letters remaining in English after the Latin alphabet was borrowed were substituted by Latin letters and combinations of letters, e.g. «v» was introduced for the voiced consonant /v/ instead of «f» in the intervocal position /lufian - love/, the digraph «ch» was introduced to denote the sound /ch/ instead of the letter «c» / chest/ before front vowels where it had been palatalized, the digraph «sh» was introduced instead of the combination «sc» to denote the sound /sh/ /ship/, the digraph «th» was introduced instead of the Runic letters  «0» and «   »  /this, thing/, the letter «y» was introduced instead of the Runic letter «3» to denote the sound /j/ /yet/,  the digraph «qu» substituted the combination «cw» to denote the combination of sounds /kw/ /queen/, the digraph «ou» was introduced to denote the sound /u:/ /house/ (The sound /u:/ was later on diphthongized and is pronounced /au/ in native words and fully assimilated borrowings). As it was difficult for French scribes to copy English texts they substituted the letter «u» before «v», «m», «n» and the digraph «th» by the letter «o» to escape the combination of many vertical lines /«sunu» - «son», luvu» - «love»/.

There are the following semantic groups of French borrowings:

• a) words relating to government : administer, empire, state, government;

• b) words relating to military affairs: army, war, banner, soldier, battle;

• c) words relating to jury: advocate, petition, inquest, sentence, barrister;

• d) words relating to fashion: luxury, coat, collar, lace, pleat, embroidery;

• e) words relating to jewelry: topaz, emerald, ruby, pearl ;

• f) words relating to food and cooking: lunch, dinner, appetite, to roast, to stew.

Words were borrowed from French into English after 1650, mainly through French literature, but they were not as numerous and many of them are not completely assimilated. There are the following semantic groups of these borrowings:

• a) words relating to literature and music: belle-lettres, conservatorie, brochure, nuance, piruette, vaudeville;

• b) words relating to military affairs: corps, echelon, fuselage, manouvre;

• c) words relating to buildings and furniture: entresol, chateau, bureau;

• d) words relating to food and cooking: ragout, cuisine.

Italian borrowings: Cultural and trade relations between Italy and England brought many Italian words into English. The earliest Italian borrowing came into English in the 14-th century, it was the word «bank» /from the Italian «banko» - «bench»/. Italian moneylenders and moneychangers sat in the streets on benches. When they suffered losses they turned over their benches, it was called «banco rotta» from which the English word «bankrupt» originated. In the 17-th century some geological terms were borrowed: volcano, granite, bronze, lava. At the same time some political terms were borrowed: manifesto, bulletin.

But mostly Italian is famous by its influence in music and in all Indo-European languages musical terms were borrowed from Italian: alto, baritone, basso, tenor, falsetto, solo, duet, trio, quartet, quintet, opera, operetta, libretto, piano, violin.

Among the 20-th century Italian borrowings we can mention: gazette, incognito, altostrati, fiasco, fascist, dilettante, grotesque, graffitto etc.

Spanish borrowings: Spanish borrowings came into English mainly through its American variant. There are the following semantic groups of them:

• a) trade terms: cargo, embargo;

• b) names of dances and musical instruments: tango, rumba, habanera, guitar;

• c) names of vegetables and fruit: tomato, potato, tobacco, cocoa, banana, ananas, apricot etc.

GERMANIC BORROWINGS: English belongs to the Germanic group of languages and there are borrowings from Scandinavian, German and Holland languages, though their number is much less than borrowings from Romanic languages.

Scandinavian borrowings: By the end of the Old English period English underwent a strong influence of Scandinavian due to the Scandinavian conquest of the British Isles. Scandinavians belonged to the same group of peoples as Englishmen and their languages had much in common. As the result of this conquest there are about 700 borrowings from Scandinavian into English.

Scandinavians and Englishmen had the same way of life, their cultural level was the same, they had much in common in their literature therefore there were many words in these languages which were almost identical, e.g.

ON	OE	Modern E
syster	sweoster	sister
fiscr	fisc	fish
felagi	felawe	fellow

However there were also many words in the two languages which were different, and some of them were borrowed into English, such nouns as: bull, cake, egg, kid, knife, skirt, window etc, such adjectives as: flat, ill, happy, low, odd, ugly, wrong, such verbs as : call, die, guess, get, give, scream and many others.

Even some pronouns and connective words were borrowed which happens very seldom, such as: same, both, till, fro, though, and pronominal forms with «th»: they, them, their. Scandinavian influenced the development of phrasal verbs, which did not exist in Old English, at the same time some prefixed verbs came out of usage, e.g. ofniman, beniman. Phrasal verbs are now highly productive in English /take off, give in etc/.

German borrowings: There are some 800 words borrowed from German into English. Some of them have classical roots, e.g. in some geological terms, such as: cobalt, bismuth, zink, quarts, gneiss, and wolfram. There were also words denoting objects used in everyday life which were borrowed from German:  iceberg, lobby, and rucksack, Kindergarten etc.

In the period of the Second World War the following words were borrowed: Volkssturm, Luftwaffe, SS-man, Bundeswehr, gestapo, gas chamber and many others. After the Second World War the following words were borrowed: Berufsverbot, Volkswagen etc.

Holland borrowings: Holland and England have constant interrelations for many centuries and more than 2000 Holland borrowings were borrowed into English. Most of them are nautical terms and were mainly borrowed in the 14-th century, such as: freight, skipper, pump, keel, dock, reef, deck, leak and many others.

Besides two main groups of borrowings (Romanic and Germanic) there are also borrowings from a lot of other languages. We shall speak about Russian borrowings, borrowings from the language, which belongs to Slavoninc languages.

Russian borrowings: There were constant contacts between England and Russia and they borrowed words from one language into the other. Among early Russian borrowings there are mainly words connected with trade relations, such as: rouble, copeck, pood, sterlet, vodka, sable, and also words relating to nature, such as:  taiga, tundra, steppe etc.

There is also a large group of Russian borrowings which came into English through Rushian literature of the 19-th century, such as: Narodnik, moujik, duma, zemstvo, volost, ukase etc, and also words which were formed in Russian with Latin roots, such as: nihilist, intelligenzia, Decembrist etc.

After the Great October Revolution many new words appeared in Russian connected with the new political system, new culture, and many of them were borrowed into English, such as: collectivization.  udarnik, Komsomol etc and also translation loans, such as: shock worker, collective farm,  five-year plan etc.

One more group of Russian borrowings is connected with perestroika, such as: glasnost, nomenklatura, apparatchik etc.

№ 14. First Two Stages of English Lexicography.

Lexicography is the subbranch of lexicology, which studies different dictionaries. The problem of compiling new dictionaries is a problem of great importance. The richer is a vocabulary, the richer and more developed is the language. The dictionaries should reflect the richness of the language. It should contain all the meanings of the words. The change of the vocabulary is connected with the change of the life of the society. The dictionary should reflect all these changes. There are different types of dictionaries. They are: 1. explanatory or etymological (Webster and Skeat); 2. dictionary of synonyms and antonyms (Апресян); 3. parallel or bilingual (E-R Мюллер; R-E Смирнитский); 4. phonetic by Jones; 5. Phraseological by Кунин. Etymological dictionary learns not only the meaning, but also the usage of the word. The author of the dictionary must know the language perfectly well. When compiling a dictionary it is necessary to take into consideration that the word in one language does not fully correspond to its equivalents in other languages. For ex: to go – идти (человек, дождь, время). It is impossible to use ‘to go’ in all this cases (time flies, it is raining). Usually equivalent of the word corresponds only to one of the meaning, in other cases they are used differently. As a rule, words in the dictionary are arranged in alphabetical order. The catchword is usually given in heavy type. The part of speech to which this word belongs is usually indicated. This is of great importance especially for the English language. In English dictionaries usually pronunciation is given. In Russian dictionaries a stress is given. Sometime the pronunciation is given too. Each dictionary has its own way of showing pronunciation. Usually phonetic signs are explain in preface. The terms are usually indicated to which branch of science they belong. In England, the first English dictionary was published in the beginning of the 17th century (in the 1604). It was a dictionary of so-called hard words-words, difficult to understand. It was compiled by Cawdray. That dictionary comprised words, which were explained in the same language. This dictionary past several editions, but it continued to treat only difficult words. In 1721, The Universal Etymological Dictionary was published. This dictionary was compiled by Johnson. Johnson’s dictionary was based on historical principles and comprised quotations from the books of different writers and had literary illustrations. In the following centuries, a number of lexicographers and writers began to work at the compiling new dictionaries. The result if this great work was the appearance of the Oxford New Dictionary. It was edited by Bradley. It consisted of 123 volumes. It includes pronunciation; it shows parts of speech and etiology of words. The meanings are numbered and lettered. Each meaning of the word is dated and illustrated by some quotations from the works of the best writers (Shakespeare). From this dictionary, we learn when the word came to be used, its exact meaning and so on. We have several abbreviated editions of this dictionary. In 1811 a Concise Oxford Dictionary appeared. It has no quotations from the works of different writers. The words in this dictionary are explained in English. We see the etymology of every word and find some expressions with it. Then a Pocket Oxford dictionary appeared. Now we have 4 editions of this dictionaries. The first edition belongs to July 1924. This Pocket dictionary contains a long preface. It also gives pronunciation of every English word. At the end of this book, the author gives a list of suffixes of different origin and a list of abbreviations. To know not only the meaning of the word we should use Encyclopedia. ‘Britannica’ – dictionary on different branches of science. There are also phonetic dictionaries compiled by Johns. For ex: an English pronouncing dictionary, compiled by Johns. It deals with phonemes. In English, we have a special dictionary by Patridge – dictionary of slang and unconventional English. Only slang and vulgar words are in this dictionary. There are also phraseological dictionary compiled by Кунин. He gives phraseological combinations, unities and phusions in alphabetic order. Art the end of this dictionary we can see an article, where Кунин gives his own point of view on phraseological expressions. He gives intimidiate categories between phraseological combinations and unities. He also gives examples of intimidiate categories between phraseological unities and phusions. He gives such examples of intimidiate category as: it’s raining cats and dogs, to talk through one’s hat (бессмыслица). In this article he says, that there are 3 principal types of idiom classification: 1)grammatical, etymological, semantical or lexical. He gives examples of adjective phrases: (mad as March hair (не в своем уме)); adverbial phrases (on the alert (на страже)); verb phrases (to show the white further (струсить)); noun phrases (blue-devils (уныние).  Many people habitually speak of the Dictionary just as they do of the Bible, or the prayer book or the Psalms. When they are asked of the authorship of these works, they would certainly say that ‘’the Psalms’’ were composed by David and ‘’the Dictionary’’ – by Dr.Johnson.

We’ll speak about the popularity of Dr.Johnson’s dictionary later, but, naturally, his work was preceded by scores of workers, each of whom had added his stone to the lexicographic pyramid, which had already risen to a great proportions when Johnson made to it his contribution. And this is what the history of English lexicography deals with. And the beginning was neither Dictionaries nor even English.

As to their language, they were in the first place and principally Latin; as to their substance, they consisted of glosses. They were Latin, because at that time, the 7^th and 8^th centuries A.D., Latin was in Western Europe the only language of books, and the learning of Latin was the portal (портал, главные ворота) to all learning. And they were glosses. The possessor of a Latin book, or a member of a religious community who possessed half a dozen books, in his ordinary reading, here and there came across a difficult word which lay outside his familiar Latin vocabulary. When he gained the meaning of such a word, he often wrote the meaning over the word, for his own memory and to those who might read the book after him. He wrote it in a smaller size, sometimes in easier Latin, and sometimes, if he didn’t know Latin equivalent, as a word of his own language. Such an explanatory word written over a word of the text is called a gloss. Almost all the Latin MSS of religious or scientific treatises, that came to us from the Middle Ages, contain examples of such glosses, sometimes few, sometimes many.

We can suppose, that this glossing of MSS began in Celtic and Teutonic lands rather that in Romanic territories, because in the latter the old Latin was not yet so dead.

The relation of Latin to the Romanic of Provence was like that of literary English to Lancashire or Somerset dialect. So, if the monk of Burgundy or Provence could read at all, it was the bookish Latin. But to the Teuton or the Celt Latin was entirely foreign language. And he could not guess the meaning of word by any likeness to his own. So gloss was an important aid in his reading. To the modern philologist, Teutonic or Celtic, these glosses have preserved a large number of Old English, Old Irish and Old German words.

In the process of time, some naive lexicographers started to collect all the glosses from the manuscripts which they read and combine them in a list. It was easier to learn them in a compact form and, thus, made readers more independent of the interlinear glosses, and allowed to be used in school-teaching of pupils and neophytes (новообращенных). A collection of glosses copied on a single list constituted a Glossarium or Glossary; it was a remote precursor of the 17^th century ‘’Table Alphabeticel’’, or ‘’Expositor of Hard Words’’.

This was the first source of English lexicography. The other is to be found in the fact that in the old days the learning of Latin involved the learning of grammar and words (vocables). Traditionally they were communicated by oral teaching, by the living voice of a teacher, and were handed down from generation to generation by oral tradition. The vocables were acquired to memory as classified lists of words: lists of names of parts of the body, names of domestic animals, of wild beasts, of fishes, of trees, of heavenly bodies, of relationship and kindred, of ranks of men, of names of trades, of tools, of arms, of clothing, of church furniture, of deseases, of virtues and vices, etc. During some time, such lists were put down on paper or parchment leaves (пергамент), and their collections constituted a Vocabularium or Vocabulary.

In their practical use the Vocabulary and the Glossary served the same purpose, so they were often combined. As these manuscript lists were copied, recopied and combines, it was seen that it was useful to put the words and phrases into alphabetical order, so that a particular word could be easily found among thousands of words. The first step was to bring all the words having the same first letter. So the copyist extracted first all the words, beginning with A, then with B, etc., arranging the words into what we call the first-letter order.

A little later, combining two or three lists in the first-letter order, instead of transcribing the A-words as they stood, he went through them, picking out first those that began with Aa-, then those in Ab-, then Ac-, etc. Then he did the same with B-words. Thus, the Vocabulary stood, not yet completely alphabetical, but alphabetized as far as the second letter of each word.

All these stages can actually be seen in four of the most ancient glossaries of English origin, that have come down to us, known respectively, from the libraries to which they belong now, as the Leiden, the Epanal, the Erfurt, and the Corpus (Corpus Christi College, Cambridge).

The Leiden Glossary represents the earliest stage of such a work. It is a collection of smaller glossaries, each set entered under the name of the treatise from which it was extracted. The words are left as they appeared in the treatise, without any alphabetical order. It also incorporates in a final section the lists of names of animals and other classes of things. If You wanted to discover any particular word in this glossary, the whole work from beginning to end must be looked through.

The first advance is seen in the Epinal Glossary, which uses part of the materials of the Leiden Glossary, incorporating with them many others. It is arranged in the first-letter order from A to Z, but there is no individual letters arrangement after first letters. For instance, there are 550 entries starting with A.

The third stage is represented by the Corpus Glossary, which contains the materials of its predecessors and much more, - alphabetical arrangement has been carried as far as the second letter of each word: thus the first 95 explained words beginning with Ab-, and the next 75 with Ac-, and so on. In at least one glossary of the 10^th century, the alphabetical arrangement has been carried as far as the third letter.

The Corpus Glossary dates to the early part of the 8^th century; the Epinal and Erfurt Glossaries are a little older, and the Leiden is the oldest one. So the beginning of English lexicography started can be fixed between 600 and 700 A.D. which coincides with the introduction of Christianity in the South of England at the end of the 6^th century.

Many more vocabularies were compiled between these early dates and the 11^th century, but they gradually become more and more English. It is clear that at first the purpose of the glosses was to explain difficult Latin words by easier Latin words. When no equivalents were found, the explanation was in Old English. Thus, in the Epinal Glossary the English words are relatively few.

There are only 30 among 117 on the first page. In the Corpus Glossary they become more numerous and on the vocabularies of the 10^th and 11^th centuries they are truly Latin-English: every Latin word is explained by an English one. Here we see, that a new aim gradually appears.

The object was no longer to explain difficult Latin words, but to give equivalent translation. So we can state that is was the second stage in the history of English lexicography.

Number of words in English: The General Explanations at the beginning of the Oxford English Dictionary states:

The Vocabulary of a widely diffused and highly cultivated living language is not a fixed quantity circumscribed by definite limits... there is absolutely no defining line in any direction: the circle of the English language has a well-defined centre but no discernible circumference.

The current FAQ for the OED further states: How many words are there in the English language? There is no single sensible answer to this question. It's impossible to count the number of words in a language, because it's so hard to decide what actually counts as a word.

The vocabulary of English is undoubtedly vast, but assigning a specific number to its size is more a matter of definition than of calculation. Unlike other languages such as French (the Académie française), German (Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung), Spanish (Real Academia Española) and Italian (Accademia della Crusca), there is no academy to define officially accepted words and spellings. Neologisms are coined regularly in medicine, science, technology and other fields, and new slang is constantly developed. Some of these new words enter wide usage; others remain restricted to small circles. Foreign words used in immigrant communities often make their way into wider English usage. Archaic, dialectal, and regional words might or might not be widely considered as "English".

The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (OED2) includes over 600,000 definitions, following a rather inclusive policy:

It embraces not only the standard language of literature and conversation, whether current at the moment, or obsolete, or archaic, but also the main technical vocabulary, and a large measure of dialectal usage and slang (Supplement to the OED, 1933).

The editors of Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged (475,000 main headwords) in their preface, estimate the number to be much higher. It is estimated that about 25,000 words are added to the language each year.

The Global Language Monitor announced that the English language had crossed the 1,000,000-word threshold on 10 June 2009. The announcement was met with strong scepticism by linguists and lexicographers, though a number of non-specialist reports accepted the figure uncritically. However, in December 2010 a joint Harvard/Google study found the language to contain 1,022,000 words and to expand at the rate of 8,500 words per year.[83] The findings came from the computer analysis of 5,195,769 digitised books. The difference between the Google/Harvard estimate and that of the Global Language Monitor is about thirteen thousandth of one percent.

Comparisons of the vocabulary size of English to that of other languages are generally not taken very seriously by linguists and lexicographers. Besides the fact that dictionaries will vary in their policies for including and counting entries, what is meant by a given language and what counts as a word do not have simple definitions. Also, a definition of word that works for one language may not work well in another, with differences in morphology and orthography making cross-linguistic definitions and word-counting difficult, and potentially giving very different results. Linguist Geoffrey K. Pullum has gone so far as to compare concerns over vocabulary size (and the notion that a supposedly larger lexicon leads to "greater richness and precision") to an obsession with penis length.

№ 15. Types of dictionaries. Addendum to Explanatory Dictionaries of the English Language.

The second task of our lecture today is to differentiate dictionaries in compliance with as many general features as possible but constraining ourselves to what can lead us to generalization of their types.

Since the language is as difficult to describe, as is our universe, every national lexicography comprises dozens and hundreds of dictionaries of most various types. Their division into types can be accomplished taking into account the aim of a dictionary, its volume, word order, object of description, etc.

1) The first basis for all dictionaries and reference books differentiation into two principal groups is an object o description. Depending on what they describe they are divided into encyclopedic and linguistic dictionaries.

The first of them don’t describe words, but objects, notions, events and phenomena. That’s why we can come across prepositions, personal pronouns, interjections very seldom in them. Instead, there are a lot of proper names, and terms.

The second defines the word itself, but not an object or a notion. It is defined as a language unit: its meaning is given, grammar, spelling, pronunciation, accent, stylistic features, etc. (Give the example, say, Земля). Interesting enough could be reference to G.Ouspensky division: «Словари» и «Вещари»).

2) The second basis is their volume or the amount of entries they contain. We can simply (roughly) divide them into larger, average and smaller ones. Naturally this basis is not enough sufficient, because we can also differentiate one-volume big dictionaries and pocket dictionaries.

3) The third basis is the language of headword (or entry words) defining. If a word is defined by the same language, it is a monolingual dictionary. If by another one, it is a bilingual or translation dictionary.

4) Description of functional versions of a language is the fourth basis of our classification.

As is known, any national language is a conglomeration of several systems, i.e. general literature language, science and technology language, territorial, professional and social dialect, e.g. Dictionary of argo, Dictionary of M.Yu.Lermontov., etc.

5) The fifth basis is the unit of description. If a foreign word is, then it is a Dictionary of Foreign Words, if it’s an idiom, then it would be a Phraseological Dictionary.

6) But dictionaries can define a certain feature of a unit, not the the unit as a whole, e.g. its occurrence in the language, then it is a Frequency Dictionary, it a pronunciation of a word, - a Pronouncing Dictionary.

And this is the sixth basis of typology.

7) The order in which the entries are arranged in a dictionary is the seventh basis of classification. There are alphabetically arranged word-books. But the order from a word to a notion is not always convenient. Ideographic words are arranged vice versa, from a notion to the word form. Such principle was first used in glossai word lists and most vividly presented in the first Roget’s Thesaurus. There are also Reverse Dictionaries, Dictionaries of Rhymes, where the word order can be alphabetically inverse.

By its structure dictionaries of the English language usually comprise five principal sections in the following order: 1) introduction or Foreword; 2)section “How to use the dictionary”; 3) Key to the system of phonetizing used in the dictionary; 4) list of abbreviations and their explanation; 5) the dictionary proper; 6) Additional material, i.e. appendices.

1. contains the information that helps to use the dictionary more rationally and obtain wide scope of information, defines its volume and tasks, principles of its structure.

2. describes the structure of an entry, labels, grammar features of a word, etc.;

3. demonstrates the way in which words are pronounced;

4. shows the information in a compact way which is repeated from word to word;

5. comprises the word list and their lexicographic processing;

6. comprise two types of data:

   • list of words not included in the principal list? Such as geographical names, foreign words, etc.;

   • encyclopedic materials which do not necessarily refer to linguistic dictionaries and used for advertisement.

And the last point so far which will contribute estimation and description of a dictionary is the structure of and entry. They are different in various types of dictionaries, but three features, that are inherent to the major types, go as follows: 1) Headword; 2) Description of semantic and stylistic as well as grammar and functional features of a word; 3) documentary evidence of existence of a word in the language and illustration of its use.

Completing the topic dealt with last time we can conclude that a period since the middle of the XYIII century till the middle of the XIX century was the period of compiling national dictionary of English. And this is the YII stage of English lexicography evolution according to our classification.

In the XIX century Johnson’s dictionary remained one of the most respected manuals of English. It had been republished, re-edited, re-made and added several times, but in its core it was the dictionary published 75 years ago.

One significant event occurred between the Johnsonian period and publication of the Big Oxford dictionary: it was a publication of A New Dictionary of the English Language by Charles Richardson in London, in1837. It undermined the authority of Johnson’s dictionary, at any rate in philological environment. The value of the dictionary was in its comprehensive quotation material (from the authors since 1300 till the first decade of the XIX century). Having arranged the citations in a strictly chronological order Richardson brilliantly illustrated the advantages of historical way of meaning. The word entry, thus, became a documentary evidence of the word development history. Naturally, the vast amount of material in each made the dictionary overweighed with texts from different periods of language history, and by a complicated etymological procedure of showing the original meaning of a word. Moreover, only roots of words were given in alphabetical order. All these made the usage of the dictionary very unpopular but it was highly appreciated by philologists.

The development of new European linguistics was based on the scientific principles where real historic facts cost much more than arguments of reason. That is why, the XYIII century was often called the age of reason and rationalism whereas that of the XIX was considered as the age of history. The new, comparative and historic method was based on the precise analysis of linguistic facts. This new trend, developed by William Jones, Friedrich Schlegel, Rasmus Rask, Jacob Grimm, etc., greatly influenced the fundamentals of lexicography. Instead of assigning point of view which dominated in the European and English lexicography in XYII-XYIII, a new scientific approach was used for compiling dictionaries as an independent, objective reflection of what has developed in the language within definite period of time had become a defining point. The dictionary was now considered to be a reflection of historic research but not as an instrument in stating a pure, universal standard.

In 1857 Richard Trench made a report “On some deficiencies of our dictionaries of the English language’’ at the sitting of the London Philological Society. In his report he, practically, put forward the program of compiling a new English dictionary, based on historic principles. “Only those who are users of the language can sift bran from the flour, deny one thing and accept another. They are to be taken as real members of Crusca Academy; the title of sifters means usurpation if it is adopted by the dictionary compilers''.

So, in 1879 the London Philological Society signed an agreement with the Oxford University Publishers on publication of the ‘’ New Dictionary of the English language, based on new historic principles’’. Later, it was titled ‘’Big Oxford Dictionary of the English Language’’. James Murray was assigned editor-in-chief of the Dictionary and the work acquired proper efficiency and very soon became a nation-wide project. Hundreds of volunteers took part in this work: they compiled materials, picked up citations and did other lexicographic work. Many philologists sent their cards of quotations to editorial board and the results of their own etymological research.

Owing to such a wide support the first part of the dictionary, comprising part of a letter ‘’A’’ was issued in 1884. In 1900 four volumes comprising English lexis up to letter ‘’H’’ followed. Finally, the titanic work was completed in 1928. It contained 10 volumes of large format (folio), each being of 1,500 pages. In 1933 one more volume was published (Addendum) where new words were included that had appeared in the language after the first publication of the dictionary, or omitted by the editors by this or that reason.

Due to its advantages Oxford Dictionary influenced all further development of English and American lexicography greatly.

Dictionaries of ‘’Oxford’’ series: Explanatory dictionaries are widely used in Britain, the States and other English-speaking countries. In the USA only approximately 11 mln. dictionaries are sold annually. They are published by 25 different publishing houses. Among a great variety of them 8-9 series of dictionaries are most popular. Oxford English Dictionaries are the most well-known among them. They are published by the OUP. These dictionaries are known under several abbreviated names: ‘’New English Dictionary’’ (NED), “Historical English Dictionary” (HED), or “The Oxford English Dictionary” (OED).

There are two more names for it: “The Society’s Dictionary” (of Philological Society) and “Murray’s Dictionary” in honor of one of its editors. In our lexicography it bears the name ‘’Великий Оксфордський Словник”.

The dictionary is designated for scholars, linguists, philologists, and for those who are engaged in studying history of the language and theoretical problems of its development.

But it is of little use for average readers. That’s why abridged dictionaries were published on its basis. They are: 1) The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical principles/prepared by Little K., Fowler H.W., Coulson J.; Rev. and ed. by C.T. Onions. 2 vols. It contains 163,000 entries; 2)The Concise Oxford English Dictionary of Current English compiled by Fowler et al.

It has 40,000 entries; besides, some dictionaries of smaller size are presented in this series. They are especially popular with the youth from high schools and Universities. The example is “Oxford Illustrated Dictionary” ed. by Coulson et al. It contains 30,000 entries and a lot of pictures. Then goes “The Pocket Oxford Dictionary of Current English” compiled by F.G. and H.W. Fowlers (49,000 entries). Then is “The Little Oxford Dictionary of Current English (30,000 entries). It is very compact but is a good manual on modern English. And at last there is a dictionary specially published for schoolchildren of 11016 years of age. Word meanings are simplified in it to provide easy access and use

Webster’s series dictionaries: The second in popularity is Webster’s series published by G. and C. Merriam Co. It differs from Oxford dictionaries by two peculiarities: 1) It includes a great number of specialized terms on science, technology, arts (appr.28%); 2) It registers a lot of proper names – names, pseudonyms of historic personalities, writers, poets, painters, geographical names, names of streets and squares. Therefore, Webster’s dictionary is a kind of modern dictionary where one can find purely philological information as well as that, connected with encyclopedic and specialized dictionaries.

A special teaching series was also published: Webster’s Dictionary for primary schools:

“Webster’s Elementary Dictionary For Boys and Girls” (18,000 words and 1600 pictures), “Webster’s Intermediate Dictionary” (57,000 words); specially for ordinary readers “Webster’s New Ideal Dictionary” on 672 pp.

There are also dictionaries of the “Century” series, “Funk-Wagnalls” series, which has another name – “Standard Dictionary”, then, “World Publishing Company”, “Hornby Dictionaries”. “Random House Dictionary of the English Language” (which was compliled with the auxiliary help of a computer), “The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language”, etc.

Автор, құрастырушы;

Авторлық ұжымның мүшелерi, құрастырушылар _________________Т.А.Ж.

(күні, қолы) (толық)

Факультеттің ОӘК ұсынылған _______20___ж., хаттама №_____

Факультеттің ОӘК төрағасы__________Т.А.Ж.

(күні, колы)