- •Introduction
- •Module 1. Classical Pragmatics
- •1. Basic Assumptions of Linguopragmatics
- •Issues Discussed:
- •Definition
- •Structural Ambiguity
- •Origins
- •Areas of Interest
- •Referential Uses of Language
- •Related Fields
- •Criticisms of Pragmatics
- •References
- •2. Speech Act
- •Issues Discussed:
- •J. L. Austin’s Taxonomy of Speech Acts
- •Speech Act and Language Development
- •Earlier Treatments of Speech Acts
- •Historical Critics of Speech Act Theory
- •References
- •3. Illocutionary Act
- •Issues Discussed:
- •Definition
- •Further examples:
- •Approaches to Defining "Illocutionary Act"
- •J. R. Searle’s Taxonomy of Illocutionary Speech Acts
- •Illocutionary Force
- •Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices
- •Illocutionary Negations
- •References
- •4. Indirect Speech Acts
- •Issues Discussed:
- •Definition
- •J. R. Searle's Theory of "Indirect Speech Acts"
- •Analysis Using Searle's Theory
- •References
- •5. Felicity Conditions
- •Issues Discussed:
- •Definition
- •Preparatory Conditions
- •Conditions for Execution
- •Sincerity Conditions
- •Felicity Conditions for Declarations
- •Felicity Conditions for Requests
- •Felicity Conditions for Warnings
- •References
- •6. K. Bach, r. Harnish and The Unified Theory
- •Issues Discussed:
- •K. Bach and r. Harnish on the Locutionary Acts
- •K. Bach and r. Harnish on the j. R. Searle’s Taxonomy of Illocutionary Acts
- •Communicative Acts versus Conventional Acts
- •The Speech Act Schema
- •References
- •Module 2. Contemporary Pragmatics
- •7. Contemporary Pragmatic Theory and Two Models of Linguistic Communication
- •Issues Discussed:
- •Contemporary Pragmatic Theory
- •Two Models of Linguistic Communication
- •References
- •8. D. Sperber, d. Wilson and Relevance Theory
- •Issues Discussed:
- •Basic Assumptions of Relevance Theory
- •The Principles of Relevance
- •Implicated Premises and Conclusions
- •References
- •9. Levinson's Theory of Utterance-Type-Meaning
- •References
- •10. Literalists, Minimalists, Contextualists and Others
- •References
- •Module 1. Classical Pragmatics Seminar 1. Referential Uses of Language
- •Issues Discussed:
- •Definition of Sign
- •Dyadic Signs
- •Triadic Signs
- •Molino and Nattiez's diagram:
- •Modern Theories of Sign
- •Indexicality
- •Pragmatics and Indexicality
- •Ch. S. Peirce's Trichotomy of Signs
- •Referential Indexicality
- •Indexical Presupposition and Performativity
- •References
- •Tasks and Questions
- •Seminar 2. Non-Referential Uses of Language
- •Issues Discussed:
- •First, Second, and Higher Orders of
- •Sex/Gender Indices
- •Affect Indices
- •Deference Indices
- •T/V Deference Entitlement
- •Affinal Taboo Index
- •Hypercorrection as a Social Class Index
- •Multiple Indices in Social Identity Indexicality
- •Oinoglossia (‘Wine Talk’)
- •References
- •Tasks and Questions
- •Seminar 3. Performative Utterance
- •Issues Discussed:
- •Origin of the Term
- •J. L. Austin's Definition
- •Categories of Performatives
- •The “Hereby” Test
- •Distinguishing Performatives from Other Utterances
- •Are Performatives Truth-Evaluable?
- •E. Sedgwick's Account of Performatives
- •Some Examples (Mainly of Explicit Performative Utterances)
- •References
- •Tasks and Questions
- •Seminar 4. H. P. Grice and Theory of Conversation
- •Issues Discussed:
- •H. P. Grice’s Definition of Conversational Implicature
- •H. P. Grice’s Cooperative Principle and Conversational Maxims
- •Conversational Implicature and Its Characteristics
- •Conversational Implicature versus Conventional Implicature
- •Particularized and Generalized Conversational Implicatures
- •Other Types of Conversational Implicature
- •Implicature versus Entailment
- •H. P. Grice’s Theory of Meaning and Communicative Intentions
- •References
- •Tasks and Questions
- •Module 2. Contemporary Pragmatics Seminar 5. Near-Side Classical Pragmatics
- •Issues Discussed:
- •Indexicality
- •D. Kaplan on Indexicals and Demonstratives
- •Pragmatic Puzzles of Referentialism
- •R. Stalnaker on Context and Content
- •Presupposition, Common Ground and Context
- •Propositional Concepts
- •References
- •Tasks and Questions
- •Seminar 6. Politeness Theory
- •Issues Discussed:
- •Politeness and Its Types
- •Techniques to Show Politeness
- •Linguistic Devices to Show Politeness
- •P. Brown and s. Levinson’s Politeness Theory
- •Positive and Negative Face
- •Face-Threatening Acts
- •Negative Face Threatening Acts
- •Positive Face Threatening Acts
- •Politeness Strategies
- •Bald On-record
- •Positive Politeness
- •Negative Politeness
- •Choice of Strategy
- •Payoffs Associated with each Strategy
- •Sociological Variables
- •Social distance between parties (symmetric relation).
- •The absolute ranking of the threat of the fta.
- •Criticism of the Politeness Theory
- •G. Leech’s Politeness Maxims
- •The Tact Maxim
- •The Generosity Maxim
- •The Approbation Maxim
- •The Modesty Maxim
- •The Agreement Maxim
- •The Sympathy Maxim
- •References
- •Tasks and Questions
- •Seminar 7. Deixis
- •Issues Discussed:
- •Definition
- •Types of Deixis Traditional Categories
- •Other Categories
- •Discourse
- •Anaphoric Reference
- •Deictic Center
- •Usages of Deixis
- •Deixis and Indexicality
- •Tasks and Questions
- •Questions for Module Control 1
- •Questions for Module Control 2
- •References
- •Some Definitions of Pragmatics (versus Semantics)
- •Glossary
Related Fields
There is considerable overlap between pragmatics and sociolinguistics, since both share an interest in linguistic meaning as determined by usage in a speech community. However, sociolinguists tend to be more interested in variations in language within such communities.
Pragmatics helps anthropologists relate elements of language to broader social phenomena; it thus pervades the field of linguistic anthropology. Because pragmatics describes generally the forces in play for a given utterance, it includes the study of power, gender, race, identity, and their interactions with individual speech acts. For example, the study of code switching directly relates to pragmatics, since a switch in code effects a shift in pragmatic force [6].
According to Charles W. Morris, pragmatics tries to understand the relationship between signs and their users, while semantics tends to focus on the actual objects or ideas to which a word refers, and syntax (or "syntactics") examines relationships among signs or symbols. Semantics is the literal meaning of an idea whereas pragmatics is the implied meaning of the given idea.
Speech Act Theory, pioneered by J. L. Austin and further developed by J. Searle, centers around the idea of the performative, a type of utterance that performs the very action it describes. Speech Act Theory's examination of illocutionary acts has many of the same goals as pragmatics, as outlined above.
Criticisms of Pragmatics
Some of the criticisms directed at pragmatics include these:
It does not have a clear-cut focus.
Its principles are vague and fuzzy.
It is redundant – semantics already covers the territory adequately.
In defending pragmatics we can say that:
The study of speech acts has illuminated social language interactions.
It covers things that semantics (hitherto) has overlooked.
It can help inform strategies for teaching language.
It has given new insights into understanding literature.
The theory of the cooperative principle and politeness principle have provided insights into person-to-person interactions.
References
Austin J. L. How to Do Things with Words / J. L. Austin. – Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1962.
Brown P. Politeness : Some Universals in Language Usage / Penelope Brown, Stephen C. Levinson. – Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1978.
Carston R. Thoughts and Utterances : The Pragmatics of Explicit Communication / Robyn Carston. – Oxford : Blackwell, 2002.
Clark H. H. Using Language / Herbert H. Clark. – Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Dijk T. A. van. Text and Context. Explorations in the Semantics and Pragmatics of Discourse / Teun A. van Dijk. – London : Longman, 1977.
Duranti A. Linguistic Anthropology / Alessandro Duranti. – Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Grice H. P. Studies in the Way of Words / Herbert Paul Grice. – Cambridge (MA) : Harvard University Press, 1989.
Handbook of Pragmatics / [Jef Verschueren, Jan-Ola Östman, Jan Blommaert (eds.)]. – Amsterdam : Benjamins, 1995.
Laurence R. H. The Handbook of Pragmatics / R. Horn Laurence, Gregory Ward. – Oxford : Blackwell, 2005.
Leech G. N. Principles of Pragmatics / Geoffrey N. Leech. – London : Longman, 1983.
Levinson S. C. Pragmatics / Stephen C. Levinson. – Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Levinson S. C. Presumptive Meanings : The Theory of Generalized Conversational Implicature / Stephen C. Levinson. – MIT Press, 2000.
Mey J. L. Pragmatics : An Introduction / Jacob L. Mey. – [2nd ed.] – Oxford : Blackwell, 2001.
Potts Ch. The Logic of Conventional Implicatures / Christopher Potts. – Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2005.
Silverstein M. Shifters, Linguistic Categories, and Cultural Description / Michael Silverstein // Meaning and Anthropology / [K. Basso, H. A. Selby (eds.)]. – New York : Harper and Row, 1976.
Sperber D. Pragmatics / Dan Sperber, Deirde Wilson // Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy / [F. Jackson, M. Smith (eds.)]. – Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2005. – P. 468-501.
Thomas J. Meaning in Interaction : An Introduction to Pragmatics / Jenny Thomas. – London : Longman, 1995.
Verschueren J. Understanding Pragmatics / Jef Verschueren. – London, New York : Arnold Publishers, 1999.
Watzlawick P. Pragmatics of Human Communication : A Study of Interactional Patterns, Pathologies, and Paradoxes / Paul Watzlawick, Janet Helmick Beavin, Don D. Jackson. – New York : Norton, 1967.
Wierzbicka A. Cross-Cultural Pragmatics. The Semantics of Human Interaction / Anna Wierzbicka. – Berlin, New York : Mouton de Gruyter, 1991.
Yule G. Pragmatics / George Yule. – Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1996.