21. The simple sentence

We will now study the structure of the simple sentence and the types of simple sentences. First of all we shall have to deal with the problem of negative sentences. The problem, briefly stated, is this: do negative sentences constitute a special grammatical type, and if so, what are its grammatical features? In other words, if we say, "This is a negative sentence," do we thereby give it a grammatical description? The difficulty of the problem lies in the peculiarity of negative expressions in Modern English. Let us take two sentences, both negative in meaning: (1) She did not know when she would be seeing any of them again. (R. MACAULAY) (2) Helen's tremendous spell — perhaps no one ever quite escaped from it. (Idem) They are obviously different in their ways of expressing negation. In (1) we see a special form of the predicate verb (did... know, not knew) which is due to the negative character of the sentence and is in so far a grammatical sign of its being negative. In (2), on the other hand, there is no grammatical feature to show that the sentence is negative. Indeed, there is no grammatical difference whatever between the sentences Nobody saw him and Everybody saw him. The difference lies entirely in the meaning of the pronouns functioning as subject, that is to say, it is lexical, not grammatical. The same is of course true of such sentences as I found nobody and I found everybody. On the other hand, in the sentence I did not find anybody there is again a grammatical feature, viz. the form of the predicate verb (did... find, not found). The conclusion to be drawn from these observations is obviously this. Since in a number of cases negative sentences are not characterised as such by any grammatical peculiarities, they are not a grammatical type. They are a logical type, which may or may not be reflected in grammatical structure. Accordingly, the division of sentences into affirmative and negative ought not to be included into their grammatical classification. Before we proceed with our study of sentence structure it will be well to consider the relation between the two notions of sentence and clause. Among different types of sentences treated in a syntactic investigation it is naturally the simple sentence that comes first. It is with specimens of simple sentences that we study such categories as parts of the sentence, main and secondary; homogeneous members, word order, etc. It is also with specimens of simple sentences that we illustrate such notions as declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory sentences, as two-member and one-member sentences, and so forth. As long as we limit ourselves to the study of simple sentences, the notion of "clause" need not occur at all. When, however, we come to composite sentences (that is, sentences consisting of two or more clauses), we have to deal with the notions of main clause, head clause, and subordinate clause. Everything we said about the simple sentence will also hold good for clauses: a clause also has its parts (main and secondary), it can also be a two-member or a one-member clause; a main clause at least must also be either declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory, etc. We will consider these questions in due course. So then we will take it for granted that whatever is said about a simple sentence will also apply to an independent clause within a composite sentence. For instance, whatever we say about word order in a simple sentence will also apply to word order in an independent clause within a composite sentence, etc.

22. basic types of word combination in English .Word-combination (WC) and their basic types. The word 'syntax' is derived from the Greek 'syntaxis' which literally means 'composition', or 'order'. It is a part of grammar which studies ways of arranging words into phrases and sentences in order to produce speech. We communicate only with the help of sentences and it brings many linguists to a conclusion that syntax is the core, or the heart of grammar and morphology is subordinated to it as it serves the needs of syntax. The main units of the syntactic level of the language are: 1) the word in its syntactic position in the sentence (a part of the sentence); 2) the phrase which is a combination of two or more notional words arranged according to the rules of a particular language; 3) the simple sentence as the minimum unit of communication; 4) the composite sentence which is a combination of two or more clauses based either on coordinate (a compound sentence) or subordinate (a complex sentence) relations; 5) the text as the highest unit of language.

The type ‘noun+noun’ is a most usual type of WC in modern English. The type ‘noun in the common case+noun’ may be used to denote 1 idea as modified by another, in the widest sense (silver watch, army unit). The type ‘noun in the genitive case+noun’ has a more restricted meaning and use. The type ‘adj+noun’ is used to express all possible kinds of things with their properties. The type ‘verb+noun’ may correspond to 2 different types of relation between an action and a thing. There are also types, such as ‘verb+adv’, ‘adv+adj’, ‘adv+adv’, ‘noun+prep_noun’, ‘adj+prep+noun’, verb+prep+noun. WC consisting of 2 components may be enlarged by addition of a third component, and so forth: adj+noun (high houses) may be enlarged by the addition of the adj in front – adj+adj+noun (new high houses). The limit of the possible growth of a WC is hard to define.

24. the comlex sentenceThere is much more to be said about the complex sentences than about the compound. The semantic relations which can be expressed by subordination are much more numerous and more varied than with co-ordination, e.g. time, place, concession, purpose, etc.Types of complex sentences: The notions of declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory sentence appear to be applicable to some types of complex sentences as well.Classification:According to the functional principle we distinguish object, attributive, adverbial clauses, etc. According to the categorial principle subordinate clauses are divided into 3 categorial semantic groups: substantive-nominal, qualification-nominal and adverbial. e.g. That they were justified in this she could not but admit. – That fact she could not but admit. e.g. Ann had become aware of the fact that she was talking loudly. – Ann had become aware of that fact. e.g. I’ll deserve your confidence if you give me another chance. – I’ll deserve your confidence on condition that you give me another chance. The two classifications are mutually complementary: - clauses of primary nominal positions (subject, predicative, object clauses); - clauses of secondary nominal positions (attributive clauses); - clauses of adverbial positions.According to the degree of self-dependence of clauses complex sentences are divided into monolythic and segregative sentence structures. Monolythic complex sentences are based on obligatory subordinative connections of clauses, whereas segregative complex sentences are based on optional subordinative connections.Monolythic complex sentences: 1) merger complex sentences, i.e. sentences with subject and predicative subordinate clauses, where the subordinate clause is fused with the principal one. E.g. The trouble is we are to change our plans. 2) valency monolyth complexes, whose subordinate clauses are dependent on the obligatory right-hand valency of the verb in the principal clause. Here belong sentences with object clauses and valency-determined adverbial clauses. E.g. I think a man like that is a real artist. – I think -… e.g. Put the book where it belongs. – Put the book - …3) correlation monolyth complexes, which are based on subordinate correlations. Complex sentences with restrictive subordinate clauses are included into this subtype. E.g. The girl played the piano with such feeling as you had never experienced. 4) arrangement monolyth complexes, whose obligatory connection between the principal and subordinate clauses is determined only by the linear order of clausal positions. E.g. If you refused her present, it would upset her.The connection between the clauses is obligatory. Rearrangement of clausal positions turns the connection between the clauses into optional. It would upset her if you refused her present. – It would upset her. The connection between the subordinate clauses can be parallel (homogeneous, heterogeneous) and consecutive (direct and oblique).