International System of Units

International System of Units (French Le Système International d'Unités), name adopted by the Eleventh General Conference on Weights and Measures, held in Paris in 1960, for a universal, unified, self-consistent system of measurement units based on the MKS (meter-kilogram-second) system. The international system is commonly referred to throughout the world as SI, after the initials of Système International. The Metric Conversion Act of 1975 commits the United States to the increasing use of, and voluntary conversion to, the metric system of measurement, further defining metric system as the International System of Units as interpreted or modified for the United States by the secretary of commerce.

At the 1960 conference, standards were defined for six base units and for two supplementary units; a seventh base unit, the mole, was added in 1971.

The meter and the kilogram had their origin in the metric system. By international agreement, the standard meter had been defined as the distance between two fine lines on a bar of platinum-iridium alloy. The 1960 conference redefined the meter as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the reddish-orange light emitted by the isotope krypton-86. The meter was again redefined in 1983 as the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second.

When the metric system was created, the kilogram was defined as the mass of 1 cubic decimeter of pure water at the temperature of its maximum density (4.0° C/39.2° F). A solid cylinder of platinum was carefully made to match this quantity of water under the specified conditions. Later it was discovered that a quantity of water as pure or as stable as required could not be provided. Therefore the primary standard of mass became the platinum cylinder, which was replaced in 1889 by a platinum-iridium cylinder of similar mass (Fig. 61). Today this cylinder still serves as the international kilogram, and the kilogram in SI is defined as a quantity of mass of the international prototype of the kilogram.

Fig. 61. Meter bar, made of an alloy of platinum and iridium, that was

the standard from 1889 to 1960.

For centuries, time has been universally measured in terms of the rotation of the earth. The second, the basic unit of time, was defined as 1/86,400 of a mean solar day or one complete rotation of the earth on its axis. Scientists discovered, however, that the rotation of the earth was not constant enough to serve as the basis of the time standard. As a result, the second was redefined in 1967 in terms of the resonant frequency of the cesium atom—that is, the frequency at which this atom absorbs energy, or 9,192,631,770 hertz (cycles per second).

self-consistent US secretary of commerce supplementary alloy isotope triple point

самодостатній міністр торгівлі США додатковий сплав ізотоп потрійна точка

1. Why was CI accepted all over the world?

2. How many base units does CI have?

3. What are supplementary units of CI? Why were they adopted?

4. How stable are such fundamental values as speed of light and masses of elementary particles?

5. How may possible instability of these values influence fundamental concepts of metrology?

Exercise 2. Complete the sentences with the verb from parentheses in an appropriate form. Add auxiliary if need be.

The temperature scale (adopt) ________ by the 1960 conference (base) _________ on a fixed temperature point, the triple point of water, at which the solid, liquid, and gas (be) ________ in equilibrium. The temperature of 273.16 K (assign) _________ to this point. The (freeze) ___________ point of water (designate) ______________ as 273.15 K, equaling exactly 0° on the Celsius temperature scale. The Celsius scale, which (be) _______ identical to the centigrade scale, (name) __________ for the 18th-century Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, who first (propose) ____________ the use of a scale in which the interval between the (freeze) ___________ and (boil) _____________ points of water (divide) ____________ into 100 degrees. By inter­national agreement, the term Celsius officially (replace) _____________ centigrade.

ГРАМАТИЧНІ ВПРАВИ

Reviewing pronouns (Module 1, Lesson 4).

Exercise 1. Translate the sentences. Pay special attention to adequate rendering of pronouns.

1. At one time, the basis for length was supposed to be a fraction of the circumference of the earth but it was “maintained” by the use of a platinum/iridium bar.

2. A good conductor is one that has low resistance.

3. There’s quite a lot one can do.

4. The wine-gallon of 231 cubic inches was used instead of the English one (as defined in 1824) of about 277 cubic inches.

5. No one will get hurt.

6. They're closing this factory but building two new ones in Atlanta.

7. It is common to employ a standard system of units by which the measurement from one instrument can be compared with the measurement of another.

8. Sperry's gyroscope and others based on the rush of air through intakes under the wing or the aircraft belly to measure speed and altitude.

9. Ultimately, a few seconds after closing the switch, the capacitor is fully charged, and current no longer flows.

10. Voltmeters are designed to measure either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC).

11. The total error in each measurement results from both systematic and random errors.

12. It’s very satisfying to study at the university like ours.

Exercise 2. Translate into English.

Мало пального, багато грошей, кілька секунд, трохи цибулі, кілька книжок, замало напруги, забагато людей, достатньо часу.

Комунікативна практика

Інструктування, перевірка розуміння

Listen to the conversation.

Nick: Ann, could you help me?

Ann: With pleasure. And what seems to be the trouble?

Nick: I can’t turn your CD player on. It looks like computer. I’ve never seen such model.

Ann: Oh, it’s Japanese. It looks a little bit sophisticated, but, as a matter of fact, very easy to use.

Nick: How does it work?

Ann: Well, first thing you have to do is to plug it in. Push the ‘on’ button. You see the green lamp lights.

Nick: And how can I put the disk in?

Ann: You should press ‘eject’ button. You see how the cover opens. Then put the disk here and close the cover. Is that clear?

Nick: Aha… Yes, thank you.

Ann: Why don’t you try it yourself now? ... That’s right. Now you see the small display shines. You can press cursor buttons like those on computer’s keyboard to select an item in the menu. Then press ‘yes’ button to exit the menu. … Are you with me?

Nick: Yes. That’s great!

Як показано в прикладі, опис послідовності дій супроводжується зв’язками типу:

The first thing you do is …

Then you have to …

After you’ve done that …

Крім того, буває доцільно контролювати слухачів щодо розуміння викладеного, використовуючи такі фрази:

Is it clear? OK so far? Got that?

Інколи буває необхідно застерегти слухача від неправильних дій:

Be careful not to press this button because… Make sure you remember… Don’t forget…

Exercise. Give your classmates instructions on how to use the following objects. Make sure if your partner understand your instruction.

Calculator, penknife, computer, photo camera, dictionary, fax machine, copier.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Fill in the gaps with proper pronouns.

As devised by the Academy, the basic unit of the metric system was the meter (a name taken from the Greek metron, meaning "a measure"). The meter was defined as a ten millionth of the length of the meridian ______ passed through Paris from the North Pole to the equator. _______ units, including _______ of capacity (volume) and mass (weight), were defined in terms of the meter. The gram was defined as the mass of one cubic centimeter of water at the temperature of _______ maximum density (4^o C). The cubic decimeter, commonly called the liter, was the unit of capacity. The metric system was established as a base-10 system, with prefixes to indicate multiples and divisions of the basic units.

The political appeal of the French Revolution, the conquests of Napoleon, and the usefulness of the metric system _______ helped it gain widespread adoption. The Metric Convention of 1875 established the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres, France, to maintain standards and to make periodic revisions. By the mid-20th century _______ countries had adopted the metric system.

In 1960 the bureau adopted Le Systeme International d'Unites (SI). An expansion of the metric system, SI defines ________ base units in terms of physical processes.

Exercise 2. Find in the text English equivalents for the following words and word combinations.

На основі, визначати, позичати з, загальне визнання, політичні наслідки, прийняття, максимальна густина, одиниця об’єму, корисність, подальший розвиток.

Exercise 3. Translate the text from Exercise 1 in written.

Lesson 4

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Learn the vocabulary and then read and translate the text.

Measurement standards, traceability and calibration

A measurement standard or etalon, is a material measure, measuring instrument, reference material or measuring system intended to define, realize, conserve or reproduce a unit or one or more values of a quantity to serve as a reference.

A core concept in metrology is so called traceability¹, defined as "the property of the result of a measurement or the value of a standard whereby it can be related to stated references, usually national or international standards, through an unbroken chain of comparisons, all having stated uncertainties." The level of traceability establishes the level of comparability of the measurement: whether the result of a measurement can be compared to the previous one, a measurement result a year ago, or to the result of a measurement performed anywhere else in the world.

Traceability is most often obtained by calibration, establishing the relation between the indication of a measuring instrument and the value of a measurement standard.

Example: The meter is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second. The meter is realized at the primary level in terms of the wavelength from an iodine-stabilized helium-neon laser. On sub-levels, material measures like gauge blocks are used, and traceability is ensured by using optical interferometry to determine the length of the gauge blocks with reference to the above-mentioned laser light wavelength.

A certified reference material (CRM) is a reference material, where one or more of its property values are certified by a procedure that establishes traceability to a realization of the unit, in which the property values are expressed. Each certified value is accompanied by an uncertainty at a stated level of confidence. The term standard reference material (SRM) is also used in some parts of the world and is synonymous with a CRM.

CRMs are generally prepared in batches. The property values are determined within stated uncertainty limits by measurements on samples representative of the whole batch.

batch comparability gauge gauge block reference to conserve

партія, пакет можливість порівняння шаблон кінцева міра довжини – металевий циліндр або пара­лелепіпед для перевірки вимірювальних пристроїв тут: еталон зберігати

Exercise 2. Explain the terms.

Level of confidence, uncertainty, vacuum, certification, measure­ment, measuring instrument, wavelength.

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.

1. What is a standard?

2. What is traceability and how it may be implemented?

3. What does level of traceability establish?

4. How can you explain the word combination ‘unbroken chain of comparisons’?

5. What are reasons to calibrate instruments?

6. How different are acronyms SRM and CRM?

7. Is there any difference between SRM and etalon?

ГРАМАТИЧНІ ВПРАВИ

Reviewing active verb forms (Module 1, Lessons 6-11).

Exercise 1. Translate the sentences into English.

1. Де Микола? Він зараз у Лондоні, вивчає англійську.

2. Перепрошую, що запізнився. Ви давно мене чекаєте?

3. Був обідній час. Я працював з ранку і трохи втомився.

4. Коли почало дощити? – Я думаю, що дощ йде приблизно дві години.

5. У моєї машини спустила шина, і тому коли я дістався університету, екзамен вже розпочався.

6. Коли він приїде, ми зможемо все обговорити.

7. З іншого боку дороги була машина. Вона зламалась і водій пробував її відремонтувати.

8. Як довго у нього ця машина?

9. Він вже був у мене минулого року.

10. Що ти збираєшся робити сьогодні ввечері?

Exercise 2. Select either Present Simple or Present Progressive form for the verbs in parentheses.

Several teams of astronomers (take) _______ part in the experiment, which (map) one-quarter of the sky using the telescope at Apache Point Observatory in New Mexico. Its main purpose is to look at objects outside Earth’s galaxy, but it also (catalog) smaller and closer objects such as asteroids. “We (see) ________ radio waves emitted by water molecules,” Gomez said. “They are all destroyed within 100 years of the beginning of this stage, so we (see) _________ this star during an extremely brief transition period of its life.”

Radio receiver (consist) ___________ of straightforward high-frequency amplifier, detector, and low-frequency amplifier circuits.

How to make it rain is probably the last thing the flood-drenched inhabitants of the UK and elsewhere in Europe (want) _________to think about at the moment. But the natural variability of the weather (regardless of any enhancement from global warming) (mean) we are bound to be facing drought again sooner or later. And drought (be) ________, of course, the normal preoccupation of people in many parts of the world.

Exercise 3. Put the verbs in parentheses into appropriate form.

1. My cat nodded her head as if (understand) ___________ what I said.

2. Some of these people (speak, never) __________ English before they came here.

3. Do you know that woman who (sit) ___________ in the black leather chair?

4. I (know) ____________ Peter for seven years. When I (meet) ___________ him, he (work) ___________ at a book store.

5. I need some envelopes. – OK, I (get) ____________ you some.

Комунікативна практика

Ввічливість

Exercise 1. Discuss the following situations.

1. You’re on a bus. The person next to you is playing loud music. What would you say?

A. Would you mind turning your music down, please?

B. Excuse me, but I can’t read my book with all that noise.

C. You’re very rude, aren’t you?

2. You’re in class. The student behind you is kicking your chair. What would you say?

A. Can you stop that, I can’t concentrate.

B. Teacher! He’s kicking my chair!

C. Stop that now!

3. It’s the middle of the night. Your neighbour’s dog is barking. Would you:

A. phone your neighbor and say ‘Could you stop Mitzy barking, please?’

B. phone the police and say ‘Would you come quick, there’s a dangerous animal at Number 22!’

C. open the window and shout ‘SHUT UP!’

4. You’re having a romantic dinner in a restaurant. A man near you is shouting on his mobile phone. What would you say?

A. Do you mind moving somewhere else?

B. Waiter! Please tell this man to go outside.

C. I’m sorry, but we’re trying to be romantic here!

Exercise 2. Complete the sentences with a word from the box.

off (x2) on (x2) down up over

1. I hate it when my alarm goes ________ in the morning.

2. I want to listen to that program. Please turn the radio ________.

3. As soon as he gets home, he switches ________the TV and watches the evening news.

4. Can we turn ________ to Channel 4, please? I want to watch that Italian film.

5. Please turn the radio _________. I can’t hear it very well.

6. Let’s switch the TV ________ and have dinner in peace!

7. That music’s too loud. Please turn it ________.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the following text in written.

Traceability to the SI

A traceability chain, see Figure , is an unbroken chain of comparisons, all having stated uncertainties. This ensures that a measurement result or the value of a standard is related to references at the higher levels, ending at the primary standard.

In chemistry and biology traceability is often obtained by using CRMs and reference procedures.

Fig. 62. Traceability chain.

An end user may obtain traceability to the highest international level either directly from a National Metrology Institute or from a secondary calibration laboratory, usually an accredited laboratory. As a result of various mutual recognition arrangements, internationally recognized traceability may be obtained from laboratories outside the user’s own country.

A basic tool in ensuring the traceability of a measurement is the calibration of a measuring instrument, measuring system or reference material. Calibration determines the performance characteristics of an instrument, system or reference material. It is usually achieved by means of a direct comparison against measurement standards or certified reference materials. A calibration certificate is issued and, in most cases, a sticker is provided for the instrument.

Four main reasons for having an instrument calibrated:

1. To establish and demonstrate traceability.

2. To ensure readings from the instrument are consistent with other measurements.

3. To determine the accuracy of the instrument readings.

4. To establish the reliability of the instrument i.e. that it can be trusted.

Exercise 2. Answer the following questions.

1. What is a traceability chain?

2. How can common user ensue appropriate level of traceability?

3. What institution provides traceability in Ukraine?

4. What is Ukrainian equivalent for traceability?

5. What is calibration?

6. What are reasons for having an instrument calibrated?

Exercise 3. Find in the text above synonyms for the following words.

to guarantee reference indication meter result determined

to show derived deviation to certify to get method

Lesson 5

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Learn the text and then answer the questions.

Development of metric system

Until the metric system was adopted in the 1790s, there was no common system of measurements in the world. In Europe the measuring system of the ancient Romans, some 2,000 years old, was still in use in the 1700s. But because standardization was not dependable, Roman feet and inches differed somewhat in size from one town to another. In addition to feet and inches, there were many local units such as the Italian cantarello for weight, the German Metze for volume, or the English tod for weighing wool. The French, in fact, had more than 1,000 units of measurement by the late 1700s with approximately 250,000 variations in size from one town to another. To straighten out this confusion, committees of French scientists during the French Revolution of the 1790s created the metric system.

The international Treaty of the Meter of 1875, of which the United States was an original signer, created permanent international committees to continually refine the metric system’s accuracy based on the latest scientific knowledge. The headquarters of these committees are located today in a suburb of Paris.

All metric units were originally derived from the meter, but by 1900 the metric system began to be based on the mks (meter-kilogram-second) system. Under this system the unit of mass (the weight of an object at sea level on Earth), was redefined as the kilogram, and the unit of time, the second, was added. Later a unit of the electromagnetic system, the ampere, was added to form the mksa (meter-kilogram-second-ampere) system. Because scientists needed ever-smaller units, the cgs (centimeter-gram-second) system also came into use. The unit of volume, the liter, was originally defined as 1 cubic decimeter (dm³), but in 1901 it was redefined as the volume occupied by a kilogram of water at 4°C and 760 mm of mercury; in 1964 the original definition (dm³) was restored.

In 1960 major revisions to the metric system resulted in a “new” metric system known as SI after the initial letters of its French name Système International d’Unités. The revisions were adopted at a General Conference of Weights and Measures held by countries using the metric system and resulted in the creation of the International System of Units.

1. What international systems of unit did exist?

2. What were motives to standardize the system of units?

3. Why and when was the International System of Units adopted?

4. What main amendments and revisions to CI were accepted since its adoption?

5. Is it possible that CI be changed in the future?

Exercise 2. Match the words with their synonyms.

etalon redefine modify approximate accuracy dependable refine headquarter size original constantly

first change exactness continually value reference rename inexact main office reliable improve

ГРАМАТИЧНІ ВПРАВИ

Reviewing passive verb forms (Module 2, Lessons 1-3).

Exercise 1. Put the verbs in parentheses into appropriate form.

1. My passport (stamp) ___________ at the custom-house when I arrived.

2. Many of goods that (produce) __________ since the beginning of the century are completely machine-made.

3. Our teacher said that he (give) ___________ us a test next week.

4. He can’t use his office now. It (redecorate) _____________.

5. A tree that was lying across the road (blow down) ___________ in the storm.

6. Last night someone (brake) _________ our office. – Anything (take) __________?

Exercise 2. Translate into English.

1. Вважається, що напруга використовується об’єктами у колі.

2. Коли різні об’єкти з’єднані таким чином, що утворюються окремі шляхи струму між терміналами, кажуть, що вони з’єднані паралельно.

3. Максимальна величина струму, що вимірюється ампер­метром, була підвищена додаванням шунта.

4. Терміни дані і результати [information and knowledge] можуть використовуватись як еквівалентні поняття для описання сукупності інформації [entity], що отримана після обробки вихідних даних сенсорів.

5. У незарядженому атомі є рівна кількість протонів і електронів, і кажуть, що такий атом нейтральний.

Exercises 3. Translate the sentences in written. Explain usage of passive verb forms.

1. Measurement is the process by which relevant information about a system of interest is interpreted using the human thinking ability to define what is believed to be the new knowledge gained.

2. Today it is believed that those circulating currents are caused by the motions of electrons, particularly by their spin within individual atoms.

3. US continue to use 'their' value in land surveying work—this too is slowly being metricated.

4. The stored information can also be later transferred to a desktop computer that can be used to record, analyze and process the data in accord with record keeping programs that have been developed for the operating company's purpose.

5. All metric units were originally derived from the meter, but by 1900 the metric system began to be based on the mks (meter-kilogram-second) system.

6. On sub-levels, material measures like gauge blocks are used, and traceability is ensured by using optical interferometry to determine the length of the gauge blocks with reference to the above-mentioned laser light wavelength.

Комунікативна практика

Evaluating skills

Exercise 1. Learn the conversation with positive attitude to work of the employee. Then practice the conversation in a small group using the dialog as a model.

A: Excuse me, Martin, may I interrupt?

B: Of course, Helene, come in.

A: Could we talk about Vivian?

B: Why? Is something wrong?

A: No, nothing is wrong. It’s time for her job evaluation.

B: Really? How long has she been working here?

A: Six month.

B: I can’t believe it.

A: In general, what do you think of her work?

B: I don’t work with her very much.

A: Doesn’t she assist you?

B: Yes, but I don’t ask very much of her. I travel so much. I do most of my work on the road.

A: But in general what do you think?

B: She is an excellent worker I think. You want to talk to other people, of course.

A: Oh yes, I’ll talk to everyone she works with. Can you mention anything specific?

B: She’s always at her desk when I need her. She seems to come on time every morning.

A: Do you have regular work for her?

B: Not really. I just give her whatever I need.

A: What does she usually do for you?

B: Mainly word processing. She types the final copies of my stories for the file.

A: What else of her skills?

B: Her work for me is outstanding. She’s done some research for me. She’s also done some music research.

A: Would you be happy to have her stay?

B: Sure! I enjoy working with her.

A: Thanks. I’ll talk to all the others. Good-bye.

B: Bye.

Exercise 2. Make a conversation with a negative opinion of a work. Use as an example expressions below:

1. She is not very accurate.

2. I don't think she is a good worker.

3. She is never at her desk when I need her.

4. Besides, she's always late.

5. I don't like the way she files.

6. She is not very neat.

7. The office manager doesn't think she's a strong worker.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text in written.

Adoption of metric system in English-speaking countries

In the United States several attempts were made to bring the metric system into general use. In 1821 Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, in a report to Congress, advocated the adoption of the metric system. In 1866 Congress legalized the use of the metric system, and the system was increasingly adopted, notably in medicine and science, as well as in certain sports, such as track and field. In 1893 the Office of Weights and Measures (now the National Institute of Standards and Technology) of the United States adopted the metric system in legally defining the yard and the pound.

In 1965 the United Kingdom became the first of the English-speaking countries to begin an organized effort to abandon the older units of measurement. Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa quickly followed and adopted the changeover more rapidly than the United Kingdom.

In 1971, after an extensive study, the U.S. secretary of commerce recommended that the United States convert to metric units under a ten-year voluntary plan. In 1975 President Gerald R. Ford signed the Metric Conversion Act. It defines the metric system as being the International System of Units as interpreted in the United States by the secretary of commerce. The act called for voluntary adoption of the metric system. In 1988 a provision in new federal legislation called for all federal agencies to use the metric system in business transactions starting in 1992, but this was never implemented. Lack of public interest and support has prevented the metric system from being adopted in the United States.

track and field adopt voluntary plan increasingly

легка атлетика тут: приймати план добровільного впровадження тут: все більше

Exercise 2. Find out in the text and explain usage of passive verb forms.

Exercise 3. Transform passive phrases found in previous exercise into active form.

Example: In the United States several attempts were made to bring the metric system into general use.  Authorities of the United States made several attempts to bring the metric system into general use.

Lesson 6

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Learn the text and then answer the questions.

Legal metrology

Legal metrology is one or three categories of metrology, see Lesson 1. Legal metrology originated from the need to ensure fair trade, specifically in the area of weights and measures. Legal metrology is primarily concerned with measuring instruments which are themselves legally controlled, and the main objective of legal metrology is to assure citizens of correct measurement results when used in official and commercial transactions.

Main international structure of legal metrology is the International Organization of Legal Metrology, OIML, an intergovernmental treaty organization established in 1955. The purpose of OIML is to promote the global harmonization of legal metrology procedures. In 2008 OIML had 59 member countries and 57 corresponding member countries that joined the OIML as observers.

The OIML has since its establishment developed a worldwide technical structure that provides its members with metrological guidelines for the elaboration of national and regional requirements concerning the manufacture and use of measuring instruments for legal metrology applications. The OIML issues international recommen­dations that provide members with an internationally agreed basis for the establishment of national legislation on various categories of measuring instruments. There are also many other areas of legislation, outside legal metrology, where measurements are required to assess conformance with regulations or legislation e.g. aviation, healthcare, construction products, environmental and pollution control.

Legislation for measuring instruments

People using measurement results in the application field of legal metrology are not required to be metrological experts and the government takes responsibility for the credibility of such measure­ments. Legally controlled instruments should guarantee correct measurement results:

• under working conditions

• throughout the whole period of use

• within given permissible errors.

Therefore requirements are laid down in national or regional legislation for legal metrology measuring instruments and measurement and testing methods including pre-packaged products.

fare trade legislation credibility permissible repeal not obliged to repeal scope

торгівельні тарифи законодавство надійність припустимий відміняти не обов’язково відміняє тут: сфера

1. What is a target of legal metrology?

2. What is the main international institution of legal metrology? What are its functions?

3. What legal metrology should guarantee instrument users?

4. What are peculiarities of European legal metrology?

5. How instruments manufacturers are encouraged to accept European requirements for standardization?

Exercise 2. Put the verbs in parentheses into appropriate form. Insert auxiliaries into appropriate place if need be.

EU controlled measuring instruments

In Europe, harmonization of legally controlled measuring instruments currently (base) ________ on Directive 71/316/EEC, which (contain) __________ horizontal requirements for all categories of measuring instruments, as well as in other specific directives (cover) ___________ individual categories of measuring instruments and which (publish) _____________ since 1971. Member states subject to these directives (not, oblige) ____________ to repeal existing national legislation. Measuring instruments, which (grant) ____________ an EC type approval (not all instruments) and an EC initial verification, can (place) ___________ on the market and (use) ___________ in all member states without further tests or type approvals.

For historical reasons the scope of legal metrology (not, be) _________ the same in all countries. With the coming into force of the Non-automatic Weighing Instruments (NAWI) Directive on 1 January 1993 and the Measuring Instruments Directive (MID) on 30 October 2006 many of the existing directives (relate) to measuring instruments (repeal) _________.

Exercise 3. Translate in written the text ‘EU controlled measuring instruments.’

ГРАМАТИЧНІ ВПРАВИ

Reviewing modal verbs (Module 2, Lessons 4-5)

Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences. Explain functions of modal verbs.

1. The observable variable X need not necessarily be the measurand but simply related to the measurand in some known way.

2. The receiver must account for propagation delays, or decreases in the signal's speed caused by the ionosphere and the troposphere.

3. You mustn’t touch anything!

4. Because electrons can flow in only one direction, from cathode to anode, the vacuum-tube diode could be used as a rectifier.

5. Can I give it to you?

6. Anyone spending more than four hours a day working on a PC may start to suffer from aching hands, neck or shoulders, occasional headaches and eye strain.

7. May I come in?

8. The current I_LR of Figure N may be resolved into horizontal and vertical components.

9. Many researchers feel that the future of computer hardware might not be in further miniaturization, but in radical new architectures, or computer designs.

10. An inspection of the program revealed faults that might otherwise have been overlooked.

11. They might want to know the name and address of a particular society, or last year’s accounts of a company and we can find that our for them.

12. What is something you can’t do, but you want you could do?

Exercise 2. Fill in the gaps with appropriate modals.

1. I wonder why Nick isn’t here. I think he (be) _________ sick.

2. See, Tom’s putting on his coat. He (leave) _____________.

3. How do you think the fire started? – I guess someone (drop) __________ a cigarette.

4. What are you doing this weekend? – I’m not sure, but I (go) _________ to Rome.

5. get _________ you a cup of coffee? – That’s very nice of you.

6. Do you want me to wait for you? – No, it’s OK. You ___________ wait.

7. It’s bad for your health. You (stop) ____________ smoking.

8. It’s strange that he (be) __________ late. He’s usually on time.

Exercise 3. Translate into English using modal verbs.

1. Не варто було тобі це робити.

2. А я думав, що ти все зрозумів.

3. Тобі слід самому це побачити.

4. Ти міг би зробити це завтра.

5. Ти міг би зробити це вчора.

6. Ти маєш це зробити прямо зараз.

7. Юлія може сьогодні не прийти, вона трохи застудилась.

Комунікативна практика

Describing Nature

Exercise 1. The reporter is talking to the member of children club. Listen to the conversation and then answer the questions.

Hello, I’m Martin. I’d like to ask you few questions.

What about?

About the young adventurers. Is that all right?

We don’t call ourselves that, it sounds like a movie.

What do you call yourselves?

I don’t know.

Do you enjoy being outdoors?

I love that. It’s my favorite time of the year.

What do you like?

I especially like the mountains.

Can you describe what you like?

It's so peaceful and quiet. All you can hear are the small birds and the little animals on the ground.

Do you like to look at the mountains?

Sure. We are in the mountains, but they go on and on. Look over there. See, there are more mountains. Then look over there: more and more mountains. They are far away. And they are so beautiful. They are magnificent.

It seems so quiet. Don’t you get bored?

No, living outdoors is exiting.

Aren’t you afraid sometimes?

Not with the other kids. Besides, it’s an adventure. That’s why we belong to the club.

Where are we going to hike today?

Look over there. Do you see that big white rock? There is some green grass on the hillside below.

Are there some yellow flowers too?

Yes. That's where we're going for a picnic.

Where are the speakers?

What are they going to do?

What do you like to look at?

Are you enjoying traveling?

Where do you like to travel?

Do you like to look at tall trees?

Do you enjoy bird watching?

Exercise 2. Find out in the conversation above words and expressions to describe characteristics of natural objects: colour, shape and size, position, etc.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Fill in the gaps with the words from the box.

The International ___________ of Legal Metrology (OIML) is an intergovernmental treaty organization whose ___________ includes Member States, countries which participate actively in technical activities, and Corresponding Members, __________ which join the OIML as observers. It was ___________ in 1955 in order to promote the global harmonization of legal metrology procedures. Since that time, the OIML has developed a worldwide technical structure that provides its Members with _____________ guidelines for the elaboration of national and regional requirements concerning the manufacture and use of measuring instruments for legal metrology applications.

According to 2007 World Bank figures, OIML Members cover in total an astounding 86 % of the world's __________ and 96 % of its economy.

Legal metrology comprises all activities for which legal requirements are prescribed on measurement, units of measurement, measuring instruments and methods of __________, these activities being performed by or on behalf of governmental authorities, in order to ensure an appropriate level of credibility of measurement results in the national regulatory environment.

It applies not only to trading parties, but also to the protection of individuals and __________ as a whole (e.g. law enforcement, health and safety measurements).

Legal metrology generally includes provisions related to units of measurement, to measurement results (e.g. prepackages) and to measuring ___________. These provisions cover the legal obligations related to the measurement results and the _________ instruments, as well as the legal control which is performed by or on behalf of the government.

measuring organization society membership countries measurement established society metrological population

Exercise 2. Translate the text in written.

Exercise 3. Be ready to discuss the main activities of legal metrology.

Lesson 7

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Learn the text and then answer the questions.

EU enforcement of measuring instrument legislation

Preventive measures are taken before marketing of the instru­ments, i.e. many of the instruments have to be type-approved and all have to be verified. Manufacturers are granted type approval by a competent body authorized by the member country once that type of instrument meets all associated legal requirements. With serially manufactured measuring instruments, verification ensures that each instrument conforms to type and fulfils all requirements laid down in the approval procedure.

Market surveillance is an inspection type measure to establish whether instruments placed on the market meet the legal requirements. For instruments in use, inspections or periodic re-verifications are carried out to ensure that measuring instruments continue to comply with legal requirements. The standards used for such inspections and tests must be traceable to national or international standards. The bin­ding legal control of measuring instruments included in the Direc­tives is left to each member state. Re-verifications, inspections and verification validity periods have not been harmonized and are consequently laid down by member states on the basis of their own national legislation. Member states may lay down legal requirements for measuring instruments which are not listed in the NAWI Directive or MID.

The modules for the various phases of conformity assessment found in NAWI and the MID correspond to those in Directive 93/465/EEC which apply to all technical harmonization directives.

Enforcement responsibilities

Directives define:

• The producer’s responsibility: The product must comply with the requirements in the directives.

• The government’s responsibility: Non-conforming products must not be placed on the market or put into use.

The producer’s responsibility

With the NAWI Directive and the MID the manufacturer is responsible for affixing the CE marking and the supplementary metrology marking on the product along with the number of the Notified Body guaranteeing the validity of the conformity assessment process. The affixing of the marks is a declaration that the product is in conformity with the requirements of the directives. Both NAWI and the MID are mandatory directives. Packers and importers of pre-packaged products must ensure that their packages have been packed so as to ensure compliance with the three packers’ rules. In order to do so, packers are free to use whatever quantity control and checking procedures they wish, provided they are sufficiently rigorous to ensure compliance with the rules. Compliance with the three rules may, where necessary, be determined by appropriate tests, including the reference test which is conducted by local authority trading standards officers. The Pre-packaging Directive is a non mandatory directive.

The government’s responsibility

The government is obliged to prevent measuring instruments that are subject to legal metrological control and that do not comply with applicable provisions of the directives, from being placed on the market and/or put into use. For example, the government shall in certain circumstances ensure that a measuring instrument with inappropriately fixed markings is withdrawn from the market.

The government shall ensure that pre-packaged products, which are marked with an “e” or an inverted epsilon, conform to the requirements of the relevant directives.

The government fulfils its Directive obligations through market surveillance. To conduct market surveillance the government utilizes local authority weights and measures inspectors and other persons to

• survey the market

• note any non-conforming products

• inform the owner or producer of the product about the non-conformance

• report to the government about non-conforming products.

affixing applicable provision approval procedure binding enforcement responsibilities mandatory surveillance to lay down

прикріплення застосовне положення процедура затвердження тут: супроводжувальний виконання обов’язків обов’язковий спостереження встановлювати

1. What mandatory and optional regulations are used in EU for measuring instruments?

2. What legal institutions perform metrological control?

3. Who performs market surveillance to find any non-conformance product?

4. Why do pre-packaged products have special rules for control?

ГРАМАТИЧНІ ВПРАВИ

Reviewing the infinitive (Module 2, Lessons 6-7)

Exercise 1. Translate the sentences explaining function of infinitive.

1. To make a measurement, the water is first set to flow to the supply.

2. I think it could be only plus for us, because will make us work harder.

3. These can all make you feel irritable and stressed.

4. Despite her poor health, she continued to carry out her duties.

5. Transformer T isolates the equipment from direct connection with the mains supply and enables the main’s voltage to be changed.

6. To smooth the output of the rectifiers described above, capacitors having a large capacitance may be connected across the load resistor R.

7. Sometimes you like to do more than you have just been offered—you may have to ask for permission to make sure you are allowed to.

8. At one time, the basis for length was supposed to be a fraction of the circumference of the earth but it was “maintained” by the use of a platinum/iridium bar.

9. Measurement is the process by which relevant information about a system of interest is interpreted using the human thinking ability to define what is believed to be the new knowledge gained.

10. Today it is believed that those circulating currents are caused by the motions of electrons, particularly by their spin within individual atoms.

11. Don’t make me laugh!

12. It is important to learn English.

Exercise 2. Complete the sentences with infinitive phrases.

1. The current is strong enough …

2. The voltage is too low for the engine …

3. This instrument is too expensive for us …

4. It’s too cold …

5. I’m not too tired …

6. He’s too young…

Exercise 3. Translate into English using infinitive phrases.

1. Коли я прокидаюсь вранці, я люблю слухати, як співають пташки.

2. Коли вчора я вже майже заснув, я раптово почув, як хтось стукає у двері.

3. Ми очікуємо, що делегація приїде завтра ввечері.

4. Я вважаю, що вони зараз відвідують нашу лабораторію.

5. Очікується, що літак сяде за двадцять хвилин.

6. Він тихенько кашлянув (cough), щоби привернути мою увагу.

7. Кажуть, що він живе тут понад п’ятдесят років.

Комунікативна практика

Вибачення

Протягом розмови іноді виникає потреба вибачитись перед співбесідником. Для цього існує багато висловів, вибір яких залежить від конкретної ситуації. Декілька прикладів:

Sorry. I’m sorry. I’m very (awfully, extremely) sorry. I can’t tell you how sorry I am.

I feel sorry for …

Excuse me, I didn’t realize …

I hope you can excuse my …

Could I be excused from (…) today?

I just don’t know what to say …

Pardon me.

Well, pardon me for breathing (ironic). = Excuse me for living!

Forgive me, but …

На вибачення можна відповісти таким чином:

Oh, everything is OK (all right).

Don’t worry about that.

Oh, newer mind …

It doesn’t matter …

Exercise 1. Listen to the conversation and then answer the questions.

A: I’m sorry, I’m late. You know how the rush hour traffic is.

B: Well, I don’t know how to tell you, but I completely forgot about a book I promised you to bring. I was so busy last night …

A: Oh, don’t worry about that. You can bring it next time. But unfortunately I’ve got a real problem. Do you remember a calculator you lent me last month?

B: Yes.

A: I’m awfully sorry, but it seems to me that I’ve lost it. I’m trying to find it. Anyway I’ll buy you a new one.

B: Oh, that’s OK. That’s life. By the way it didn’t work properly sometimes. So it doesn’t really matter.

Who are the speakers?

Where are they?

How serious are the problems discussed?

What time is it now?

Why was one of the speakers late?

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate in written the text on page 358 (The producer’s responsibility and The government’s responsibility.)

Exercise 2. Explain the meaning of the words and word combinations.

Market surveillance, legal requirements, re-verifications, reference test, importer, validity, conformity

Exercise 3. Find out in the text synonyms for the following words.

Producer, stick, suitable, meter, observation, goods, conform, process, certification, check.

Exercise 4. Be ready to discuss in class all aspects of modern metrology regarding materials viewed in Module 5.

Lesson 8

Підготовка до модульної контрольної роботи

Revision of topics discussed in lessons 1-7. Every students of the group makes a report devoted to the fundamentals metrology, its history, structure, main tasks as well as prospects for the future.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the following text in written.

There are two different classes of quality standards: those that are required by law or regulations and those that are voluntary. A government law or a regulation of a government agency may include or specify quantity standards requirements. In these cases, a business must comply if it is either in a regulated industry or wishes to sell products or services to the government. In all other cases, a quality standard is technically voluntary. This means a business may follow if it is chooses to or may ignore it. The voice of the customers and the forces of competition have an effect though. In the modern business environment, relations between competing companies are sensitive to conditions in the overall market. As a practical matter, some quality standards are voluntary only to extent that the organization can afford to lose business by not following them. All of this results in several forces that are driving the importance of the voluntary quality standards.

On a retail level, customers will not buy if the products or service does not meet their requirements. Large customers, such as other businesses, can state specific quality requirements in a request in a request for quote and then in a purchase order.

Exercise 2. Translate into English.

1. Спостереження за ринком – це інспекційні заходи для встановлення, чи задовольняють інструменти, розміщені на ринку, вимогам закону.

2. Продукти, що не відповідають директивам уряду, заборо­нено розміщувати на ринку.

3. У Сполучених Штатах Америки було зроблено кілька спроб широкого впровадження метричної системи.

4. Єдність вимірювань найчастіше сягається калібруванням, встановленням відповідності між даними вимірювального приладу і величиною еталону.

5. Століттями час вимірювався у одиницях, що залежали від обертання землі.

Exercise 3. Give the definitions of the following terms.

1. Industrial metrology is a branch of …

2. Measurement standard is …

3. International System of Units (SI) is a universal …

4. SI uses seven base units, which …

5. Calibration is …

6. Abbreviation CRM stands for … , that is …

Exercise 4. Complete the sentences with a verb from parentheses in an appropriate form.

1. Re-verifications, inspections and verification validity periods (not, harmonize) __________________ and are consequently laid down by member states on the basis of their own national legislation.

2. Manufacturers are granted type approval by a competent body (authorize) ____________ by the member country once that type of instrument meets all associated legal requirements.

3. In 1965 the United Kingdom (become) _____________ the first of the English-speaking countries to begin an organized effort to abandon the older units of measurement.

4. The headquarters of the International Treaty of the Meter committees (locate) ____________ today in a suburb of Paris.

5. The need for weights and measures (standards) dates back to earliest recorded history and even (mention) ________________ in the Old Testament of the Bible.

Exercise 5. Make up sentences with the following words and word combinations.

Ruler, metrology, accuracy, traceability chain, standard, temperature scale, fundamental metrology.

Exercise 6. Give the synonyms for the following words.

Etalon, quantity, supplementary, elementary, main unit, global, progress, emptiness.

Exercise 7. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.

1. Different fields of metrology are pretty independent.

2. The need for weights and measures dates back to earliest recorded history.

3. The US quickly and easily adopted metric system.

4. Modern meter comes from ancient Rome.

5. The headquarter of International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIMP) is now situated in the USA (New York).

Module 6. ParAMETERS OF MEASUREMENTS

Lesson 1

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Learn the text and be ready to do next exercises.

General approach to the conception of measurement

In addressing measurement problems, it is often useful to have a conceptual model of the measurement process. In abstract terms, an instrument is a device that transforms a physical variable of interest (the measurand) into a form that is suitable for recording (the measurement). In order for the measurement to have broad and consistent meaning, it is common to employ a standard system of units by which the measurement from one instrument can be compared with the measurement of another.

An example of a basic instrument is a ruler. In this case the measurand is the length of some object and the measurement is the number of units (meters, inches, etc.) that represent the length.

Figure 6 presents a generalized model of a simple instrument. The physical process to be measured is in the left of the figure and the measurand is represented by an observable physical variable X. Note that the observable variable X need not necessarily be the measurand but simply related to the measurand in some known way. For example, the mass of an object is often measured by the process of weighing, where the measurand is the mass but the physical measurement variable is the downward force the mass exerts in the Earth’s gravitational field. There are many possible physical measurement variables (time, force, length, resistance, etc.

Fig. 63. Simple instrument model.

The key functional element of the instrument model is the sensor, which has the function of converting the physical variable input into a signal variable output. Signal variables have the property that they can be manipulated in a transmission system, such as an electrical or mechanical circuit. Because of this property, the signal variable can be transmitted to an output or recording device that can be remote from the sensor. In electrical circuits, voltage is a common signal variable. In mechanical systems, displacement or force are commonly used as signal variables. The signal output from the sensor can be displayed, recorded, or used as an input signal to some secondary device or system. In a basic instrument, the signal is transmitted to a display or recording device where the measurement can be read by a human observer. The observed output is the measurement M. There are many types of display devices, ranging from simple scales and dial gages to sophisticated computer display systems. The signal can also be used directly by some larger system of which the instrument is a part. For example, the output signal of the sensor may be used as the input signal of a closed loop control system.

If the signal output from the sensor is small, it is sometimes necessary to amplify the output. The amplified output can then be transmitted to the display device or recorded, depending on the particular measurement application. In many cases it is necessary for the instrument to provide a digital signal output so that it can interface with a computer-based data acquisition or communications system. If the sensor does not inherently provide a digital output, then the analog output of the sensor is converted by an analog to digital converter (ADC). The digital signal is typically sent to a computer processor that can display, store, or transmit the data as output to some other system, which will use the measurement.

Exercise 2. Explain the meaning of the following terms:

measurand, sensor, physical variable, signal variable, measurement, inherent property.

Exercise 3. Work in a small group. Without looking at the text explain your partners measurement process depicted in Fig. 63.

Exercise 4. Mach the terms in exercise 2 to the real objects while measuring such real values as mass, potential difference, and temperature.

ГРАМАТИЧНІ ВПРАВИ

Reviewing the gerund (Module 2, Lessons 8-9)

Exercise 1. Translate into Ukrainian (Russian) explaining functions of gerund.

1. I didn’t expect having been asked.

2. I appreciate being invited by you.

3. Where is Tom? I did not see him last time. – I am not sure, but I think he mentioned something about having gone to another section.

4. Do you know Lucie? – I don’t think so. I don’t recall ever having met her.

5. I am looking forward to meeting you soon.

6. The light source is collimated (rays are made parallel to each other after having been emitted in multiple directions from a small source), passes through the stationary grating or index grating, and propagates through the moving grating.

Exercise 2. Translate into English using appropriate form of gerund.

1. Цю пропозицію варто розглянути.

2. Петро почував себе не дуже добре і скаржився на головний біль.

3. Ці матеріали можуть обговорюватись лише після ретельного ознайомлення з ними. (become familiar)

4. Я зацікавлений в отриманні всіх деталей щодо Вашої пропозиції.

5. Ніщо не може мене утримати від відвідання гри моєї улюбленої команди!

6. Я ніяк не звикну їздити ліворуч. (get accustomed)

7. Це лише одна з підстав своєчасно калібрувати інструменти.

Комунікативна практика

Expressing disappointment

Here are some words to express your disappointment when you are in a mood:

to be sad, to be in mood (to feel unhappy, impatient, or angry and to refuse to speak normally to other people), depressed, melancholy, sorrowful, unfortunate, unhappy, angry, shame (crying, terrible shame).

Sometimes we may want to express our disappointment to others:

It really a shame that…

It’s too bad…

If only…

I wish…

Often disappointment have to be taken philosophically. We are looking for some ways to console ourselves and our friends:

That’s life.

That’s not worth worrying about.

Let’s not cry over spilled milk.

Exercise 1. Listen to the conversation. Make assumptions about who are the speakers. Find out the expressions for disappointment.

A: Hi sweetheart, what are you doing?

B: I’m watching the news.

A: What were you doing?

B: I saw the saddest story. There was this girl and she got lost from her parents.

A: That doesn’t sound very cheerful.

B: It wasn’t.

A: You know it’s time for you to go to bed. Tomorrow is the working day.

B: But I’m so unhappy.

A: Why are you unhappy, because it’s a working day or because it’s bed time?

B: You men don't understand. Aren't you ever unhappy? Don’t you ever cry? I’m sad.

A: No wonder you are sad after such a movie! Why did you watch that story?

B: It was very good!

A: But it made you unhappy!

B: Yes, but it’s important to know other people’s feelings. We need to feel unhappiness.

A: Why?

B: We want to know how our friends feel when they are unhappy. I need understand unhappiness when you are unhappy.

A: But I’m not sad now, I’m just hungry.

B: Why are you angry?

A: I’m not angry, just hungry!

B: You are always hungry!

Exercise 2. Work in a small group. Discuss with your partners one of the situations listed below, using the expressions discussed.

1. Your favorite team has lost.

2. The weather is horrible.

3. What you had in the restaurant was too bad.

4. Your friends are far away and you missed them badly.

5. You failed the test.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Open the parentheses putting the verbs into appropriate form (active, passive, infinitive, gerund, participle). Add auxiliaries if need be.

Deflection Instrument

The deflection method (be) _______ one possible mode of operation for a measuring instrument. A deflection instrument (use) ___________ the deflection method for measurement. A deflection instrument (influence) __________ by the measurand so as (bring) _________ about a proportional response within the instrument. This response (be) ________ an output reading that (be) _________ a deflection or a deviation from the initial condition of the instrument. In a typical form, the measurand (act) __________ directly on a prime element or primary circuit so as (convert) _________ its information into a detectable form. The name (derive) __________ from a common form of instrument where there (be) ________ a physical deflection of a prime element that (link) ___________ to an output scale, such as a pointer or other type of readout, which (deflect) _________ (indicate) __________ the measured value. The magnitude of the deflection of the prime element brings about a deflection in the output scale that (design) _________ (be) _________ proportional in magnitude to the value of the measurand.

Deflection instruments are the most common of measuring instruments. The relationship between the measurand and the prime element or measuring circuit can (be) ________ a direct one, with no (balance) ___________ mechanism or comparator circuits (use) ___________. The proportional response can be manipulated through signal (condition) _______ methods between the prime element and the output scale so that the output (read) _________ (be) ________ a direct indication of the measurand. Effective designs can achieve a high accuracy, yet sufficient accuracy for less demanding uses can (achieve) ____________ at moderate costs.

An attractive feature of the deflection instrument (be) __________ that it can (design) ___________ for either static or dynamic measurements or both. An advantage to deflection design for dynamic measurements (be) ________ in the high dynamic response that can (achieve) ____________. A disadvantage of deflection instruments (be) __________ that by (derive) _________ its energy from the measurand, the act of measurement will influence the measurand and change the value of the variable (measure) ___________. This change (call) ____________ a loading error. Hence, the user must ensure that the resulting error (be) ________ acceptable. This usually (involve) _____________ a careful look at the instrument input impedance for the intended measurement.

Exercise 2. Translate the text from Exercise 1 in written.

Lesson 2

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Learn the text and then answer the questions.

Types of sensors

All sensors convert physical variables to signal variables. Sensors are often transducers in that they are devices that convert input energy of one form into output energy of another form. Sensors can be categorized into two broad classes depending on how they interact with the environment they are measuring. Passive sensors do not add energy as part of the measurement process but may remove energy in their operation. One example of a passive sensor is a thermocouple, which converts a physical temperature into a voltage signal. In this case, the temperature gradient in the environment generates a thermoelectric voltage that becomes the signal variable. Another passive transducer is a pressure gage where the pressure being measured exerts a force on a mechanical system (diaphragm, aneroid or Borden pressure gage) that converts the pressure force into a displacement, which can be used as a signal variable. For example, the displacement of the diaphragm can be transmitted through a mechanical gearing system to the displacement of an indicating needle on the display of the gage.

Active sensors add energy to the measurement environment as part of the measurement process. An example of an active sensor is a radar or sonar system, where the distance to some object is measured by actively sending out a radio (radar) or acoustic (sonar) wave to reflect off of some object and measure its range from the sensor.

The relationship between the physical measurement variable input and the signal variable (output) for a specific sensor is known as the calibration of the sensor. Typically, a sensor (or an entire instrument system) is calibrated by providing a known physical input to the system and recording the output. The data are plotted on a calibration curve such as the example shown in Figure 64. In this example, the sensor has a linear response for values of the physical input less than X₀. The sensitivity of the device is determined by the slope of the calibration curve. In this example, for values of the physical input greater than X₀, the calibration curve becomes less sensitive until it reaches a limiting value of the output signal.

Fig. 64. Calibration curve example.

This behavior is referred to as saturation, and the sensor cannot be used for measurements greater than its saturation value. In some cases, the sensor will not respond to very small values of the physical input variable. The difference between the smallest and largest physical inputs that can reliably be measured by an instrument determines the dynamic range of the device.

In some cases, the sensor output will be influenced by physical variables other than the intended measurand. In Figure 65, X is the intended measurand, Y is an interfering input, and Z is a modifying input. The interfering input Y causes the sensor to respond in the same manner as the linear superposition of Y and the intended measurand X. The measured signal output is therefore a combination of X and Y, with Y interfering with the intended measurand X. An example of an interfering input would be a structural vibration within a force measurement system.

Modifying inputs changes the behavior of the sensor or measurement system, thereby modifying the input/output relationship and calibration of the device. This is shown schematically in Figure 66. For various values of Z in Figure 66, the slope of the calibration curve changes. Consequently, changing Z will result in a change of the apparent measurement even if the physical input variable X remains constant. A common example of a modifying input is temperature; it is for this reason that many devices are calibrated at specified temperatures.

Z

Modifying

Input

Physical

Variable Signal

X Variable

SENSOR S

Y

Interfering

Input

Fig. 65. Interfering input.

Fig. 66. Illustration of the effect of a modifying input on a calibration curve.

transducer pressure gage to exert gearing system indicating needle saturation interfering input modifying input

перетворювач манометр здійснювати система передачі стрілка приладу насичення змішаний вхід модифікований (змінений) вхід

1. Give more examples of active and passive sensors.

2. What is a calibration plot made for?

3. What does sensitivity of a sensor depend on? How it may be determined?

4. Give some examples of signal outputs that are accompanied by saturation.

5. How is it possible to eliminate the effect of modifying input?

6. Should the instrument high sensitivity be always considered as plus?

Exercise 2. Find out in the text above antonyms for the following words.

constant output narrow active nonlinear more static incomplete arbitrary

passively add consume from receiving deleting insensitive unknown line

Exercise 3. Find in the text from Exercise 1 examples of present and past forms of participle and explain their functions.

ГРАМАТИЧНІ ВПРАВИ

Reviewing the participle (Module 2, Lessons 10)

Exercise 1. Translate into Ukrainian (Russian) explaining the function of participle.

1. In 1782 the brothers Montgolfier built a balloon of linen, lined with paper, that was capable of sustaining flight.

2. This led to the development of successful gliders, making Cayley the father of modern aerodynamics.

3. It is important that personal working within this field (aviation) understand the history of their industry …

4. An iron-cored inductor is often called a choke since, when used in AC circuits, it has a choking effect, limiting the current flowing through it.

5. Another passive transducer is a pressure gage where the pressure being measured exerts a force on a mechanical system (diaphragm, aneroid or Borden pressure gage) that converts the pressure force into a displacement, which can be used as a signal variable.

6. Lighting and convenience receptacles are connected from either phase conductor to neutral, giving the usual 120 V.

7. The Academy proposed a system of units, the metric system, to define the unit of length in terms of the earth’s circumference, with the units of volume and mass being derived from the unit of length.

8. In 1875, the U.S. and 16 other countries signed the “Treaty of the Meter,” establishing a common set of units of measure.

9. A core concept in metrology is so called traceability, defined as "the property of the result of a measurement or the value of a standard whereby it can be related to stated references, usually national or international standards, through an unbroken chain of comparisons, all having stated uncertainties.

10. Traceability is most often obtained by calibration, establishing the relation between the indication of a measuring instrument and the value of a measurement standard.

11. These mathematical methods might not be familiar to the reader, but this is not a serious difficulty for the cases most encountered in practice are well documented in terms that are easily comprehended, the mathematical process having been performed to yield results that can be used without the same level of mathematical ability.

Exercise 2. Translate into English using participle.

1. Добре зрозумівши завдання, я швидко впорався з ним.

2. Коли я зайшов в офіс, я побачив, що Джон користується моїм мобільним телефоном.

3. Коли його запитали, чи буде він на нараді наступного тижня, він відповів, що повернеться з відрядження не раніше кінця місяця.

4. Всі книжки, взяті з бібліотеки, мають бути повернені до початку канікул.

5. Ми отримали повний список товарів, що постачаються цією фірмою.

6. Після того, як прилади були перевірені, вони були розміщені на складі.

Exercise 3. Reduce sentences using participle.

Example: While I was reading in bed, I fell asleep. = Reading in bed, I fell asleep.

1. After I read the theorem three time, I finally understood it.

2. Since he graduated university, he has got three perfect job offers.

3. Because he works hard, he gets excellent marks.

4. The friends had nothing to do, so they were bored.

5. Because Nick has a part-time job, he has little free time.

Комунікативна практика

Making a dialogue

Learn the conversation and then use it as a model to make up your own dialogue

Dave How far is the cafe from here?

Guide The distance isn't far; you'll find it at the other

end of the Egyptian Gallery.

Guide Ladies and gentlemen, this is the Gutenburg

Bible. People believe this is the first book to be printed in Europe.

Jack Isn't this the head of Queen Nefertiti?

Mary Yes. She was the aunt of Tutankhamun.

Karl Do you have many Impressionist paintings

here?

Guide Yes, more than thirty examples hang in the East

wing.

Jack What is an amazing statue!!!

Mary That Rodin produced such a superb piece of

work all by himself is hard to believe.

Dave This fifteenth-century portrait looks brand new!

Sue Yes, the impression is that the painting has been

rather over-enthusiastically restored.

Guide On your left you will see a fine example of late

Renaissance sculpture.

Jack You know Van Gogh never sold a single

painting.

Mary I'm really surprised that people didn't appreciate

his genius during his lifetime.

Dave We've been here two hours and we're not even

halfway round the museum.

Sue I know; but to see everything in one trip is

impossible.

Karl Which one is Titian, Jane?

Jane Titian is in that place, next to the sculpture.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate in written the text from pages 372-374.

Exercise 2. Complete the sentences with appropriate ending.

1. Thermocouple is an example of …

2. Thermocouple converts … into …

3. Many devices are calibrated at specific temperatures, because …

4. The dynamic range of the device is …

5. The correlation between the measurement variable input and the signal output for a specific sensor is known as …

6. A thermocouple and a pressure gage are examples of …

Exercise 3. Explain the meaning of word combinations.

Physical variable, measurement process, voltage signal, mechanical gearing system, calibration curve, limiting value, interfering input.

Lesson 3

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Learn the text and then answer the questions.

Accuracy and Error

The accuracy of an instrument is defined as the difference between the true value of the measurand and the measured value indicated by the instrument. Typically, the true value is defined in reference to some absolute or agreed upon standard. For any particular measurement there will be some error due to systematic (bias) and random (noise) error sources. The combination of systematic and random error can be visualized by considering the analogy of the target shown in Figure 67. The total error in each shot results from both systematic and random errors. The systematic (bias) error results in the grouping of shots being offset from the bull’s eye (presumably a misalignment of the gunsight or wind). The size of the grouping is determined by random error sources and is a measure of the precision of the shooting.

Random Error

(Precision)

Systematic Error

(Bias)

Fig. 67. Target analogy of

measurement accuracy.

Systematic Error Sources (Bias)

There are a variety of factors that can result in systematic measurement errors. One class of cause factors are those that change the input–output response of a sensor resulting in miscalibration. The modifying inputs and interfering inputs discussed above can result in sensor miscalibration. For example, if temperature is a modifying input, using the sensor at a temperature other than the calibrated temperature will result in a systematic error. In many cases, if the systematic error source is known, it can be corrected for by the use of compensation methods.

There are other factors that can also cause a change in sensor calibration resulting in systematic errors. In some sensors, aging of the components will change the sensor response and hence the calibration. Damage or abuse of the sensor can also change the calibration. In order to prevent these systematic errors, sensors should be periodically recalibrated.

Systematic errors can also be introduced if the measurement process itself changes the intended measurand. This issue, defined as invasiveness, is a key concern in many measurement problems. Interaction between measurement and measurement device is always present; however, in many cases, it can be reduced to an insignificant level. For example, in electronic systems, the energy drain of a measuring device can be made negligible by making the input impedance very high. An extreme example of invasiveness would be to use a large warm thermometer to measure the temperature of a small volume of cold fluid. Heat would be transferred from the thermometer and would warm the fluid, resulting in an inaccurate measurement.

Systematic errors can also be introduced in the signal path of the measurement process shown in Figure 63. If the signal is modified in some way, the indicated measurement will be different from the sensed value. In physical signal paths such as mechanical systems that transmit force or displacement, friction can modify the propagation of the signal. In electrical circuits, resistance or attenuation can also modify the signal, resulting in a systematic error.

Finally, systematic errors or bias can be introduced by human observers when reading the measurement. A common example of observer bias error is parallax error. This is the error that results when an observer reads a dial from a non-normal angle. Because the indicating needle is above the dial face, the apparent reading will be shifted from the correct value.

bull’s eye gunsight drain response sensed dial face parallax

яблучко (мішені) приціл відплив (рос. утечка) реакція що відчувається циферблат паралакс (кут зору)

1. Is there any difference between the terms accuracy and precision?

2. What is a systematic error? What are its possible sources?

3. Give some example of systematic error and the ways of its elimination.

4. What can change an instrument calibration?

Exercise 2. Explain the terms.

Random error, systematic error, total error, parallax error, bias error, permissible error.

ГРАМАТИЧНІ ВПРАВИ

Reviewing moods of the verb (Module 2, Lesson 11)

Exercise 1. Translate into English.

1. Чи не могли б ви підказати, як дістатися до центра міста?

2. Повідомте, будь ласка, якщо вам буде необхідна додаткова інформація.

3. Відповідно до умов контракту, вишліть, будь ласка, інформацію щодо робочих характеристик приладу.

4. Прошу зробити все необхідне для своєчасного виконання всіх ваших зобов’язань.

5. Ми хочемо, щоб ви надіслали нам вичерпну інформацію про перебіг переговорів.

6. Дуже важливо, щоб ви повідомили про прибуття товарів не пізніше ніж за тиждень.

Exercise 2. Open parentheses putting the verbs into appropriate form.

1. I insisted that the money (pay) ____________ according to the contract.

2. It was such a warm and sunny day that the students proposed we (have) ___________ class outside.

3. It is essential that the systematic error (control) __________ and eventually (decrease) _____________ to acceptable level.

4. From the case illustrated, it is obvious that in order to use any meter as a voltmeter, it is necessary that the internal resistance (know) ___________.

5. My mother asked that I (be) _________ sure to lock the door.

Комунікативна практика

Handling dialogue

In a narrative we can choose whether to report things people said like this:

He told me to do this.

or like this:

He said, “If you don’t do it this minute, I’ll kill you.”

The first way is good if you only want to report the main idea of what was said. The second way is good if you want to report exactly what was said.

Here are some other ways of reporting the main idea of what was said:

Someone wanted to know…

Someone wondered…

Someone tried to find out…

Someone went on to say that…

I found out that…

Discuss in a group how you would continue these opening phrases. Give a few examples.

Exercise. Work in pairs or in a small group. Each of you will tell a short story to put it into dialogue form. Your partner will write down real content of the dialogue.

Example: Peter gave an exclamation of disappointment when he found that he has locked a door but left the key and money inside. Because he was in a hurry to his lesson he asked Joe, his roommate, who was sleeping…

Peter: What a pity! (What a nuisance!, Damn!, etc.) I’ve forgotten everything inside: the key, the money, my notebook. Fortunately Joe is at home (knocking at the door). Hey, Joe! Would you mind…

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Fill in the gaps with the words from the box.

A common convention in science and engineering is to express ____________ and/or precision implicitly by means of significant figures. Here, when not explicitly stated, the margin of _________ is understood to be one-half the value of the last significant place. For instance, a recording of 843.6 m, or 843.0 m, or 800.0 m would imply a margin of 0.05 m (the last significant place is the tenths place), while a recording of 8,436 m would imply a _________ of error of 0.5 m (the last significant digits are the units).

A __________ of 8,000 m, with trailing zeroes and no decimal point, is ambiguous; the trailing zeroes may or may not be intended as significant figures. To avoid this ___________, the number could be represented in scientific notation: 8.0 × 10³ m indicates that the first zero is significant (hence a margin of 50 m) while 8.000 × 10³ m indicates that all three zeroes are significant, giving a margin of 0.5 m. Similarly, it is possible to use a multiple of the basic measurement unit: 8.0 km is __________ to 8.0 × 10³ m. In fact, it _________ a margin of 0.05 km (50 m). However, reliance on this convention can lead to false precision errors when accepting data from sources that do not obey it.

Looking at this in another way, a value of 8 would mean that the measurement has been made with a precision of 1 (the measuring instrument was able to measure only down to 1s place) whereas a value of 8.0 (though mathematically equal to 8) would mean that the value at the first ____________ place was measured and was found to be zero. (The measuring ___________ was able to measure the first decimal place.) The second value is more precise. Neither of the measured values may be _________ (the actual value could be 9.5 but measured inaccurately as 8 in both instances). Thus, accuracy can be said to be the 'correctness' of a measurement, while __________ could be identified as the ability to resolve smaller differences.

accuracy error margin reading ambiguity equivalent indicates decimal instrument accurate precision

Exercise 2. Translate the text in written.

Exercise 3. Decide whether the following statements are true or false in relation to the information in the text given in Exercise 1. If you think the statement is false, change to make it true.

1. Margin of the reading 7,000,001.4 is 0.2.

2. A scientific notations requires putting into a value some number of zeroes.

3. Notation 3,050.25 A corresponds to 3.05 × 10³ A.

4. Notation 3,050.25 A corresponds to 3.05025 kA.

5. A reading of 3,050.25 A was made with a precision of 0.01 A.

Exercise 4. Translate into English. Use subjunctive or infinitive expressions.

1. Нема необхідності, щоб ці відомості були подані відразу.

2. Надзвичайно важливо, щоб ми мали точні параметри процесу, що досліджується.

3. Дуже істотно, щоби матеріали не мали домішок.

4. Бажано, щоби дослідження було закінчено вчасно.

5. Теорія вимагає, щоб ці взаємодії відбувались на вкрай малих відстанях.

6. Останні експерименти дають підстави вважати, що в даному процесі існує раніш невідомий етап.

7. Доповідач повторив основні положення нової теорії, щоб всі їх зрозуміли.

8. Цілком імовірно, що розподіл заряду інколи змінюється.

9. Кожна з цих теорій вимагає, щоб виконувались всі початкові умови.

Lesson 4

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Learn the text and then answer the questions.

Random Error Sources (Noise)

If systematic errors can be removed from a measurement, some error will remain due to the random error sources that define the precision of the measurement. Random error is sometimes referred to as noise, which is defined as a signal that carries no useful information. If a measurement with true random error is repeated a large number of times, it will exhibit a Gaussian distribution, as demonstrated in Figure 68 by plotting the probability of a result within specific ranges are measured.

Fig. 68. A normal Gaussian distribution. Dark grey is less than one standard deviation from the mean. For the normal distribution, this accounts for about 68% of the set (dark grey), while two standard deviations from the mean (medium and dark gray) account for about 95%, and three standard deviations (light, medium, and dark grey) account for about 99.7%.

The graph of the associated probability density function is  “bell”-shaped, and is known as the Gaussian function or bell curve:

,

where parameter μ is the mean (location of the peak) and σ² is the variance (the measure of the width of the distribution). The distribution with μ = 0 and σ² = 1 is called the standard normal. In measurements σ corresponds to standard deviation and quantifies the precision of the measurement. The Gaussian distri­bution is centered on the true value (presuming no systematic errors), so the mean or average of all the measurements will yield a good estimate of the true value.

Given a large number of measurements, a total of 68% of the measurements will fall within ± 1σ of the mean; 95% will fall within ± 2σ; and 99.7% will fall within ± 3σ. The smaller the standard deviation, the more precise the measurement. For many applications, it is common to refer to the 2σ value when reporting the precision of a measurement. However, for some applications such as navigation, it is common to report the 3σ value, which defines the limit of likely uncertainty in the measurement.

There are a variety of sources of randomness that can degrade the precision of the measurement—starting with the repeatability of the measurand itself. For example, if the height of a rough surface is to be measured, the measured value will depend on the exact location at which the measurement is taken. Repeated measurements will reflect the randomness of the surface roughness.

randomness roughness background noise deviation repeatability random

хаотичність шорсткість, нерівність фоновий шум відхилення, похибка відтворюваність випадковий

1. How different are random and systematic errors?

2. What types of errors may be eliminated?

3. What form does Gaussian function have?

4. What does the center of Gaussian distribution correspond to?

5. How can systematic errors influence on Gaussian function?

Exercise 2. Explain the meaning of the words and word combinations.

Randomness, variance, standard deviation, true value, standard normal, precision.

ГРАМАТИЧНІ ВПРАВИ

Reviewing sequence of tenses (Module 3, Lessons 1-2)

Exercise 1. Open parentheses and complete the sentences with a verb in an appropriate form.

1. They asked me (to need a help) ______________.

2. Tony told me he (to go to Paris next weekend) _____________.

3. Ann asked me (to help with annual report) ________________.

4. I replied that (I did not know about new rules) _____________.

5. Peter told me (you should work harder) __________________.

6. Sam wanted to know (where is Jim?) ____________________.

7. He’s just told me (he will leave city tomorrow) ____________.

Exercise 2. Work in pairs or small groups. One of the students have to describe some event or express his/her opinion. The partner has to report the main points made by first speaker keeping in mind the rules of sequence of tenses. After finishing partners switch with roles.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the following text in written.

Random error generating noise can also be introduced at each stage in the measurement process. Random interfering inputs will result in noise from the measurement environment N₁ that are introduced before the sensor. An example would be background noise received by a microphone. Sensor noise N₂ can also be introduced within the sensor. An example of this would be thermal noise within a sensitive transducer, such as an infrared sensor. Random motion of electrons, due to temperature, appear as voltage signals, which are apparently due to the high sensitivity of the device. For very sensitive measurements with transducers of this type (e.g., infrared detectors), it is common to cool the detector to minimize this noise source.

Noise N₃ can also be introduced in the transmission path between the transducer and the amplifier. A common example of transmission noise in the U.S. is 60 Hz interference from the electric power grid that is introduced if the transmission path is not well grounded, or if an inadvertent electric grand loop causes the wiring to act as an antenna. It is important to note that the noise will be amplified along with the signal as it passes through the amplifier. As a consequence, the figure of merit¹ when analyzing noise is not the level of the combined noise sources, but the signal to noise ratio (SNR), defined as the ratio of the signal power to the power in the combined noise sources. It is common to report SNR in decibel units.

The SNR is ideally much greater than 1 (0dB). However, it is sometimes possible to interpret a signal that is lower than the noise level if some identifying characteristics of that signal are known and sufficient signal processing power is available. The human ability to hear a voice in a loud noise environment is an example of this signal processing capability.

Exercise 2. Answer the questions.

1. What is instrument’s figure of merit? How it is usually presented?

2. What are sources of noise?

3. Why in measurements different factors of σ are used while evaluating precision?

4. What does SNR define?

5. What is a unit of SNR?

Exercise 3. Complete the sentences with appropriate endings.

1. Gaussian distribution may be obtained …

2. For many sensitive measurements random source noise may be considerably decreased by ….

3. The noise from measuring environment introduces …

4. If the transmission path in measurements of electric characteristics is not well grounded, it introduces …

5. Random error is sometimes referred to as noise, which is defined as …

6. The precision of the measurement is quantified by ...

7. The smaller the standard deviation …

Lesson 5

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Learn the text and then answer the questions.

Main definitions for characteristics of instrumentation

To develop an understanding of the static and dynamic characteristics of measurements, it is necessary to build a framework for understanding the process involved, setting down the main words used to describe concepts as we progress.

Measurement is the process by which relevant information about a system of interest is interpreted using the human thinking ability to define what is believed to be the new knowledge gained. This infor­mation may be obtained for purposes of controlling the behavior of the system (as in engineering applications) or for learning more about it (as in scientific investigations).

The basic entity needed to develop the knowledge is called data, and it is obtained with physical assemblies known as sensors that are used to observe or sense system variables. The terms information and knowledge tend to be used interchangeably to describe the entity resulting after data from one or more sensors have been processed to give more meaningful understanding. The individual variables being sensed are called measurands.

The most obvious way to make observations is to use the human senses of seeing, feeling, and hearing. This is often quite adequate or may be the only means possible. In many cases, however, sensors are used that have been devised by man to enhance or replace our natural sensors. The number and variety of sensors is very large indeed. Examples of man-made sensors are those used to measure temperature, pressure, or length. The process of sensing is often called transduction, being made with transducers. These man-made sensor assemblies, when coupled with the means to process the data into knowledge, are generally known as (measuring) instrumentation. The degree of perfection of a measurement can only be determined if the goal of the measurement can be defined without error. Furthermore, instrumen­tation cannot be made to operate perfectly. Because of these two reasons alone, measuring instrumentation cannot give ideal sensing performance and it must be selected to suit the allowable error in a given situation.

Measurement is a process of mapping actually occurring variables into equivalent values. Deviations from perfect measurement mappings are called errors: what we get as the result of measurement is not exactly what is being measured. A certain amount of error is allowable provided it is below the level of uncertainty we can accept in a given situation. As an example, consider two different needs to measure the measurand, time. The uncertainty to which we must measure it for daily purposes of attending a meeting is around a 1 min in 24 h. In orbiting satellite control, the time uncertainty needed must be as small as milliseconds in years. Instrumentation used for the former case costs a few dollars and is the watch we wear; the latter instrumentation costs thousands of dollars and is the size of a suitcase.

We often record measurand values as though they are constant entities, but they usually change in value as time passes. These “dyna­mic” variations will occur either as changes in the measurand itself or where the measuring instrumentation takes time to follow the changes in the measurand—in which case it may introduce unacceptable error.

For example, when a fever thermometer is used to measure a person’s body temperature, we are looking to see if the person is at the normally expected value and, if it is not, to then look for changes over time as an indicator of his or her health. Figure 69 shows a chart of a patient’s temperature.

Fig. 69. A patient’s temperature chart shows changes taking place over time.

Obviously, if the thermometer gives errors in its use, wrong conclusions could be drawn. It could be in error due to incorrect calibration of the thermometer or because no allowance for the dynamic response of the thermometer itself was made.

relevant entity allowable

відповідний об’єкт припустимий

1. What is a measurement? What are its possible goals?

2. What are main entities of a measurement process?

3. What is called a measurement error?

4. When is an error allowable?

5. Give examples of static and dynamic characteristics of specific measurement process.

ГРАМАТИЧНІ ВПРАВИ

Reviewing the preposition (Module 3, Lesson 4)

Exercise 1. Insert prepositions.

1. National aviation university is fostering research ______ science and technology.

2. It was found _____ 30s ______ the last century.

3. The aim ____ it foundation was to keep native aviation _____ the outpost ____ technological advance.

4. Many famous scientists were associated ____ NAU.

5. There are large engineering facilities _____ addition ________ those ____ fundamental scientific research.

6. ____ the present time many of its former students are working ____ higher degree ____ NAU.

7. Many research work is undertaken _____ NAU ______ a wide range _____ subjects.

8. The University is growing _______ size and numbers.

Exercise 2. Fill in the gaps with appropriate preposition and then translate into Ukrainian (Russian).

1. A differential capacitive sensor represents three terminal capacitors _____ one fixed center plate and two outer plates.

2. The response ___ physical variables is linear.

3. ____ some versions, the central plate moves _____ response _____ physical variable _____ respect _____ two outer plates, and in the others, the central plate is fixed and outer plates are allowed to move.

4. This indicates that the response ____ the device is more linear than the response of the two plate types.

5. In some differential capacitive sensors, the two spherical depressions are ground ____ glass disks; then, these are gold-plated to form the fixed plates of a differential capacitor.

6. A thin, stainless-steel diaphragm is clamped _____ the disks and serves as a movable plate.

7. With equal pressure applied ____ both ports, the diaphragm is then ____ neutral position and the output is balanced ____ a corresponding bridge.

8. If one pressure is greater than the other, the diaphragm deflects proportionally, giving an output due ____ the differential pressure.

9. _____ the opposite pressure difference, there is a phase change of 180°.

10. A direction-sensitive DC output can be obtained ____ conventional phase-sensitive demodulation and appropriate filtering.

11. Details of signal processing are given ____ the end of this chapter.

12. _____ general, the differential capacitors exhibit better linearity than single-capacitor types.

Комунікативна практика

Making official introduction

Helen and Alice are at a reception on the occasion of scientific conference.

Helen: Have you met Dr Evans?

Alice: No, but I’m familiar with his modern views in information security.

Helen: I’ll introduce you. Good afternoon, Mr. Evans. How are you?

Dr Evans: I’m fine. Nice to see you again. I was greatly impressed by your fresh ideas reported yesterday.

Helen: Thanks a lot. Mr. Evans, I’d like to introduce my colleague Ms Alice Thompson. We’re working together under Professor Smith.

Alice: How do you do?

Dr Evans: Nice to meet you, Ms Thompson. Give my kind regards to Mr. Smith. I’m going to visit your city next month.

Exercise 1. Find out which phrases are used as greetings. What should we answer to questions ‘How do you do?’ and ‘How are you?’

Exercise 2. Work in small groups. Make short conversations introducing yourself and your partners.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Fill in the gaps with the words from the box.

Instrumentation, therefore, will only give adequately correct information if we understand the static and dynamic characteristics of both the ___________ and the instrumentation. This, in turn, allows us to then decide if the _________ arising is small enough to accept.

A s an example, consider the electronic ______ amplifier in a sound system. It will be commonly quoted as having an ___________ constant after feedback if applied to the basic amplifier of, say, 10. The actual amplification ________ is dependent on the frequency of the input signal, usually falling off as the frequency __________. The frequency response of the basic amplifier, before it is configured with feedback that markedly alters the response and lowers the amplification to get a stable operation, is shown as a ______ of amplification gain versus input frequency. An example of the open loop gain of the basic amplifier is given in Figure 70. This lack of uniform gain over the frequency range results in error—the sound output is not a true enough ______________ of the input.

Fig. 70. Effect of input fre­quency on amplifica­tion gain.

measurand error signal amplification value increases graph representation

Exercise 2. Translate the text in written.

Exercise 3. Find the synonyms for the following words. Sometimes not only one word can be found.

inaccuracy magnification rate indication plot stationary active realize response entering noticeably circle homogenous real against

Lesson 6

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Learn the text and then answer the questions.

Measurement discrimination, precision and accuracy

The correct terms to use are set down in documents called standards. Several standardized metrology terminologies exist but they are not consistent. It will be found that books on instrumentation and statements of instrument performance often use terms in different ways. Users of measurement information need to be constantly diligent in making sure that the statements made are interpreted correctly.

The three companion concepts about a measurement that need to be well understood are its discrimination, its precision, and its accuracy. These are too often used interchangeably—which is quite wrong to do because they cover quite different concepts, as will now be explained. When making a measurement, the smallest increment that can be discerned is called the discrimination. (Although now officially declared as wrong to use, the term resolution still finds its way into books and reports as meaning discrimination.) The discrimination of a measurement is important to know because it tells if the sensing process is able to sense fine enough changes of the measurand. Even if the discrimination is satisfactory, the value obtained from a repeated measurement will rarely give exactly the same value each time the same measurement is made under conditions of constant value of measurand. This is because errors arise in real systems. The spread of values obtained indicates the precision of the set of the measurements. The word precision is not a word describing a quality of the measurement and is incorrectly used as such. Two terms that should be used here are: repeatability, which describes the variation for a set of measurements made in a very short period; and the reproducibility, which is the same concept but now used for measurements made over a long period. As these terms describe the outcome of a set of values, there is need to be able to quote a single value to describe the overall result of the set. This is done using statistical methods that provide for calculation of the “mean value” of the set and the associated spread of values, called its variance. The accuracy of a measurement is covered in more depth elsewhere so only an introduction to it is required here. Accuracy is the closeness of a measurement to the value defined to be the true value.

Fig. 71 Two sets of arrow shots fired into a target allow under­­­standing of the measurement concepts of discrimina­tion, precision, and accuracy.

(a) The target used for shooting arrows allows investigation of the terms used to describe the measure­ment result. (b) A different set of placements.

This concept will become clearer when the following illustrative example is studied for it brings together the three terms into a single perspective of a typical measurement.

Consider then the situation of scoring an archer shooting arrows into a target as shown in Figure 71 (a). The target has a central point — the bull’s-eye. The objective for a perfect result is to get all arrows into the bull’s-eye. The rings around the bull’s-eye allow us to set up numeric measures of less-perfect shooting performance.

Discrimination is the distance at which we can just distinguish (i.e., discriminate) the placement of one arrow from another when they are very close. For an arrow, it is the thickness of the hole that decides the discrimination. Two close-by positions of the two arrows in Figure 71 (a) cannot be separated easily.

Use of thinner arrows would allow finer detail to be decided.

Repeatability is determined by measuring the spread of values of a set of arrows fired into the target over a short period. The smaller the spread, the more precise is the shooter. The shooter in Figure 71 (a) is more precise than the shooter in Figure 71 (b).

If the shooter returned to shoot each day over a long period, the results may not be the same each time for a shoot made over a short period. The mean and variance of the values are now called the reproducibility of the archer’s performance.

Accuracy remains to be explained. This number describes how well the mean (the average) value of the shots sits with respect to the bulls-eye position. The set in Figure 71 (b) is more accurate than the set in Figure 71 (a) because the mean is nearer the bulls-eye (but less precise!).

At first sight, it might seem that the three concepts of discrimination, precision, and accuracy have a strict relationship in that a better measurement is always that with all three aspects made as high as is affordable. This is not so. They need to be set up to suit the needs of the application.

mean (math) diligent consistent discrimination spread of values

середній ретельний послідовний розділення розбіг значень

1. What is a difference between English terms ‘distinguishing’, ‘discrimination’ and ‘resolution’? Which of them is correct according to author’s opinion?

2. What do you think is more important in measurements: accuracy or precision?

3. Why usage of standard terminology is a must for metrology?

4. What are common ways of error rise in measurements?

Exercise 2. Mach the terms with their definitions.

The ratio between output signal and measured property Not satisfaction to the principle of direct proportionality The smallest change a sensor can detect in the quantity that it is measuring The degree of closeness of measurements of a quantity to its actual (true) value. The degree to which repeated measurements under unchanged conditions show the same results. The variation arising when all efforts are made to keep conditions constant by using the same instrument and operator. The variation arising using the same measurement process among different instruments and operators

Reproducibility Accuracy Precision Non linearity Repeatability Discrimination Sensitivity

ГРАМАТИЧНІ ВПРАВИ

Reviewing the preposition and two word verbs (Module 3, Lesson 5)

Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with appropriate form of two word verb from the box. One of the verbs has two different meanings and is to be used twice.

Remember, if the object of the phrasal verb is a noun, often is possible to put the object either before of after the word modifier (on, off, up, etc.): to turn the light off = to turn off the light. If the object is pronoun like it, me, you, etc., it usually goes before modifier: Don’t turn it off (impossible to use Don’t it turn off). Sometimes phrasal verbs may be followed by preposition, forming three word verb:

I am looking forward to meeting you soon.

These combinations are inseparable.

1. Sorry I’m late. My car ____________.

2. You may unfasten the belts. Our plane ___________.

3. _____________, I can’t hear you.

4. Peter fell asleep, don’t _______________,

5. Jim decided ________________ coffee. He tries to have no more than three cups a day.

6. The sky _________________, so we can leave.

7. Be careful on the ladder, don’t _______________.

8. We know how smart you are there is no need _____________.

9. Jan is going to be an astronaut when he ______________.

10. The bugler penetrated into the house _______________ the door.

speak up take off brake down cut down on look forward to grow up show off fall off wake up

Exercise 2. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian (Russian).

1. Not long ago, the orchestra was the pride of the city. Now it is on the verge of closing down.

2. My wallet was turned in to the police two days later.

3. He's a nice boy - very easy to get along with.

4. Perhaps he ought to remember those days and get around to living up to the promise he made to the last Tory conference.

5. I realized that time was getting on and we would have to hurry.

6. Nick got thrown out of college in the second year for taking drugs.

7. Edie was finding it hard to keep up with her rent payments.

8. Environmental groups intend to keep up the pressure until the government changes the law.

Комунікативна практика

Accepting and refusing an offer

Exercise 1. Listen to the conversation and then answer the questions.

A: Can I help you with those packages?

B: Huh? Why, yes. I’d really appreciate your help.

A: Where do you want that?

B: Right over there. That’s my door. It’s very kind of you.

A: No trouble at all.

B: How about a cup of coffee?

A: Thanks, I’m trying to cut down on coffee. Can I help you with anything else?

B: No, thanks, I can manage the rest myself.

A: If you need any more help, just tell me.

B: OK, I will.

A: My office is just across the passage.

B: It’s nice of you to offer.

Who are the speakers?

Who and why needs help?

Have they ever met?

Where do you think the conversation takes place?

Exercise 2. Find out in the conversation above expressions used to accept and to refuse the offer and the ones to show gratitude. Work in a small groups and use the conversation as a model practicing your own examples.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text.

In the fields of science, engineering, industry and statistics, the accuracy of a measurement system is the degree of closeness of measurements of a quantity to its actual (true) value. The precision of a measurement system, also called reproducibility or repeatability, is the degree to which repeated measurements under unchanged conditions show the same results. Although the two words can be synonymous in colloquial use, they are deliberately contrasted in the context of the scientific method.

Accuracy indicates proximity of measurement results to the true value, precision to the repeatability or reproducibility of the measurement

A measurement system can be accurate but not precise, precise but not accurate, neither, or both. For example, if an experiment contains a systematic error, then increasing the sample size generally increases precision but does not improve accuracy. Eliminating the systematic error improves accuracy but does not change precision.

A measurement system is called valid if it is both accurate and precise. Related terms are bias (non-random or directed effects caused by a factor or factors unrelated by the independent variable) and error (random variability), respectively.

The terminology is also applied to indirect measurements, that is, values obtained by a computational procedure from observed data.

In addition to accuracy and precision, measurements may have also a measurement resolution, which is the smallest change in the underlying physical quantity that produces a response in the measurement.

In the case of full reproducibility, such as in the case of rounding a number to a representable floating point number, the word precision has a meaning not related to reproducibility. For example, in the IEEE 754-2008 standard it is used as a measure for the relative accuracy with which an arbitrary number can be represented.

Exercise 2. Find adverbs in the text and explain their use.

Exercise 3. Find antonyms for the following words.

Invalid, variable, false, dependent, related, random, not accurate, decrease, inaccuracy, worsen.

Lesson 7

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Learn the text and then answer the questions.

Calibration of measurements

We have already introduced the concept of accuracy in making a measurement and how the uncertainty inherent in all measurements must be kept sufficiently small. The process and apparatus used to find out if a measurement is accurate enough is called calibration. It is achieved by comparing the result of a measurement with a method possessing a measurement performance that is generally agreed to have less uncertainty than that in the result obtained. The error arising within the calibration apparatus and process of comparison must necessarily be less than that required. This means that calibration is often an expensive process. Conducting a good calibration requires specialist expertise.

The method and apparatus for performing measurement instrumentation calibrations vary widely. An illustrative example of the comparison concept underlying them all is given in the calibration of flow meters, shown diagrammatically in Figure 72.

By the use of an overflowing vessel, the top tank provides a flow of water that remains constant because it comes from a constant height. The meter to be calibrated is placed in the downstream pipe.

The downstream is either deflected into the weigh tank or back to the supply. To make a measurement, the water is first set to flow to the supply. At the start of a test period, the water is rapidly and precisely deflected into the tank. After a given period, the water is again sent back to the supply. This then has filled the tank with a given amount of water for a given time period of flow. Calculations are then undertaken to work out the quantity of water flowing per unit time period, which is the flow rate. The meter was already registering a flow rate as a constant value. This is then compared with the weighed method to yield the error. Some thought will soon reveal many sources of error in the test appara­tus, such as that the temperature of the water decides the volume that flows through and thus this must be allowed for in the calculations.

F ig. 72. An example to illustrate how flow meters are calibrated by passing a known quantity of fluid through the meter over a given time.

It will also be clear that this calibration may not be carried out under the same conditions as the measurements are normally used. The art and science and difficulties inherent in carrying out quality calibra­tion for temperature sensors are well exposed.

Calibration of instrumentation is a must for, without it, measure­ment results may be misleading and lead to costly aftermath situations. Conducting good calibration adds overhead cost to measure­ment but it is akin to taking out insurance. If that investment is made properly, it will assist in mitigating later penalties. For example, an incorrectly calibrated automatic cement batcher was used in making concrete for the structural frame of a multistory building. It took several days before concrete strength tests revealed the batcher had been out of calibration for a day with the result that the concrete already poured for three floors was not of adequate strength. By then, more stories had been poured on top. The defective floors had to be fully replaced at great cost. More resource put into the calibration process would have ensured that the batcher was working properly.

inherent vessel overhead to be akin cement batcher concrete multistory

властивий судина накладні витрати бути схожим, подібним дозатор цементу бетон багатоповерховий

1. How is instrument calibration performed? Give some real examples of this procedure.

2. What is an allowable error level during calibration?

3. What may be consequences of inappropriate calibration?

4. How is the procedure of instrument calibration controlled?

ГРАМАТИЧНІ ВПРАВИ

Reviewing the adverb (Module 3, Lesson 3)

Exercise 1. Put each adverb in parentheses in its correct position.

1. (never) Ann has driven a car.

2. (often) Tom jogs in the morning.

3. (usually) Lucie studies at the library in the evening.

4. (yet) Frank has not finished doing his homework.

5. (seldom) Jim is at home.

6. (always) Does Peter stay here?

7. (always) You ought to tell the truth.

Exercise 2. Choose the correct form (adverb or adjective) in parentheses.

1. Melanie (quick/quickly) ________ ate her lunch. She knew the meeting was (important/importantly) __________ and she didn't want to be late.

2. Sophie lived in Thailand for several years. She speaks Thai (fluent/ly) _________, and she knows the culture very (good/well) _________.

3. The entrance examination is (extreme/ly) ________ challenging. Very few people make it into the (prestigious/ly) _________ medical school.

4. This airline's (complete/ly) ___________ lack of organization is astounding. I have been very (patient/ly) ___________ up to this point, but I am going to lose my temper if you don't find my baggage immediately.

5. The young girl sings (amazing/ly) __________ well for someone her age. Her performance was (spectacular/ly) ___________ to say the least.

6. The skies became surprisingly (dark/ly) __________ as the moon moved between the Earth and the Sun. As the eclipse progressed, the people in the streets stood (silent/ly) ____________ waiting for the sun's warmth to return.

7. Although Beth speaks (soft/ly) _________ and seems quite (timid/ly) ________, she is the leading expert in her field. Don't underestimate her abilities.

8. After the medieval cathedral was (tragic/ally) __________ burnt down last year, the city (quick/ly) _________ rebuilt it stone for stone. It looks exactly the same as it did before the fire.

9. We (gradual/ly) ________ noticed changes in Diane's personality; she became (quiet/ly) and withdrawn from her friends and family. We finally realized that we had to do something about her drinking problem before it was too late.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Complete the text with missed part of words.

Standards define the units and scales in use, and allow comparison of mea__________s made in different times and places. For example, buyers of fuel oil are charged by a unit of liq_____d volume. In the U.S., this would be the gallon; but in most other parts of the world, it would be the li___r. It is important for the buyer that the quantity ordered is actually received and the refiner ex____ts to be paid for the quantity shipped. Both parties are in________ed in accurate measurements of the volume and, therefore, need to agree on the u_____s, conditions, and method(s) of measurement to be used. Persons needing to m_______re a mass cannot borrow the primary st________d maintained in France or even the national standard from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the U.S. They must use lower-level standards that can be checked against those n_________l or international standards.

Everyday m_________g devices, such as scales and balances, can be ch_________d (calibrated) against working level mass standards from time to time to verify their a_________y. These working-level standards are, in turn, c__________d against higher-level mass standards. This chain of calibrations or ch_________ng is called “tr__________ty.” A proper chain of tr__________ty must include a statement of un_______nty at every step.

Exercise 2. Translate the text in written.

Exercise 3. Explain the following terms.

Calibration curve, noise, reproducibility, measurement, measurand, measurement discrimination, random error, sensor, systematic error.

Lesson 8

Підготовка до модульної контрольної роботи

Revision of topics discussed in lessons 1-7. Every students of the group makes a report devoted to problems arising while reading and interpreting instrument indications.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

The following exercises are typical for tasks that could be offered to students during module test.

Exercise 1. Translate the text in written.

Resistive displacement sensors are commonly termed potentiometers or “pots.” A pot is an electromechanical device containing an electrically conductive wiper that slides against a fixed resistive element according to the position or angle of an external shaft. Electrically, the resistive element is “divided” at the point of wiper contact. To measure displacement, a pot is typically wired in a “voltage divider” configuration. The circuit’s output, a function of the wiper’s position, is an analog voltage available for direct use or digitization. Calibration maps the output voltage to units of displacement. Table lists some attributes inherent to pots. This chapter describes the different types of pots available, their electrical and mechanical characteristics, and practical approaches to using them for precision measurement. Sources and typical prices are also discussed. Versatile, inexpensive, and easy-to-use, pots are a popular choice for precision measurement.

Exercise 2. Fill in the blanks using the terms of module 6.

1) A measurement system can be _________ but not precise, precise but not _____________, neither, or both.

2) For example, if an experiment contains a systematic error, then increasing the sample size generally increases ____________ but does not improve ___________.

3) Eliminating the systematic error improves ___________ but does not change __________.

4) A measurement system is called valid if it is both __________ and ___________.

5) Related terms are _______ (non-random or directed effects caused by a factor or factors unrelated by the independent variable) and error (random variability), respectively.

Exercise 3. Explain the terms below with other words.

Systematic error, accuracy, random, calibration, discrimination, mean value, measurand.

Exercise 4. Fill in the blanks transforming the words in brackets.

1. When making a (measure) __________, the smallest increment that can be discerned is called the (discriminate) ______________.

2. Although now officially declared as wrong to use, the term (resolve) ____________ still finds its way into books and reports as meaning (discriminate) _______________.

3. Even if the discrimination is (satisfy), the value obtained from a repeated measurement will rarely give exactly the same value each time the same measurement is made under conditions of constant value of (measure) _____________.

4. The spread of values obtained indicates the (precise) ____________ of the set of the (measure) ____________.

5. Two terms that should be used here are: (repeat) _______________, which describes the variation for a set of measurements made in a very short period; and the (reproduce) _______________, which is the same concept but now used for measurements made over a long period.

Exercise 5. Complete the sentence with an appropriate ending.

1. A measurement system is called valid if …

2. Discrimination is the distance at which …

3. The spread of values during measurement indicates …

4. Measurement is the process by which …

5. Random error is sometimes referred to as …

6. In electronic systems, the energy drain of a measuring device can be made negligible by making the input impedance …

Exercise 6. Complete the sentences with proper forms of the verbs in brackets.

1. Nowadays, computers __________ (to use) for many different purposes.

2. People can shop, make travel arrangements, and pay their bills __________ (to use) computers right in their own homes.

3. The word robot _________ (to use) since to refer to a machine that performs work to assist people or work that humans find difficult or undesirable.

4. These days NASA ________ (to use) sophisticated computer-guided robot controllers for its Space Shuttle Endeavor and the Mars landing probe.

5. The staff was criticized for ___________ (not to use) all opportunities of modern computer-based technologies.