1. Gentzler in his “Contemporary Tr. Theoris” describes Holmes paper as “generally accepted as the founding statement for the field”.

J.Holmes divide TS into: pure TS and applied TS

Objects of the “pure” areas of research are:

-descriptive transl. theory: description of the phenomena of translation;

-translation theory: general principles to explain and predict such phenomena;

Translation theory divides into General and Partial. Partial: a)medium-restricted;

b)area-restricted; c)rank-restricted; d)text-type-restricted;

e)time-restricted; f)problem-restricted

Descriptive divides into 1)product oriented; 2)process oriented;

3)function oriented

Applied branch of Holme’s framework concerns:

-tr. training (theaching evaluation methods, testing techniques, curriculum desigh)

-transl. aids (IT applications, dictionary, grammars)

-transl. criticism (revision, evaluation of translators, reviews)

-transl. policy.

2. Types of Translation. Decoding and recording.

In his article ‘On Linguistic Aspects of Translation’, Roman

Jakobson distinguishes three types of translation:

(1) Intralingual translation, or rewording (an interpretation of

verbal signs by means of other signs in the same language).

(2) Interlingual translation or translation proper (an interpretation of

verbal signs by means of some other language).

(3) Intersemiotic translation or transmutation (an interpretation of

verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems).

Decoding and recording:

The translation process, whether it be for translation or interpreting, can be described simply as:

1. Decoding the meaning of the source text, and

2. Recording this meaning in the target language.

To decode the meaning of a text the translator must first identify its component "translation units", that is to say the segments of the text to be treated as a cognitive unit. Behind this seemingly simple procedure lies a complex cognitive operation. To decode the complete meaning of the source text, the translator must consciously and methodically interpret and analyze all of its features. This process requires thorough knowledge of the grammar, semantics, syntax, idioms and the like of the source language, as well as the culture of its speakers.The translator needs the same in-depth knowledge to record the meaning in the target language.

As signs vary from language to language, so in order

to translate a message the translator must:

-decode the signs of the source text to understand the message,

-to analyse the message for meaning,

-to transpose the content into the target language and,

-reformulate the message using the signs of the target language. The model

below summarises the process:

Nida’s model of the translation process illustrates the stages

involved:

Source language(text)analysistransferringrestructuring Receptor language (translation).

3. Translational equivalence is the similarity between a word (or expression) in one language and its translation in another.

A translation equivalent is a corresponding word or expression in another language.

Types of equivalence:

• Linguistic equivalence- homogeneity on the linguistic level of both SL and TL texts. (word for word translation)

• Paradicmatic equivalence- where there is functional equivalence of elements of a paradigmatic expressive axis (elements of a grammar, which are higher category than lexical equivalence)

• Stylistic (translation) equivalence- where there is functional equivalence of elements in both original and translation aiming at an expressive identity with an invariant of identical meaning

• Textual (syntagmatic) equivalence- where there is equivalence of the syntagmatic structuring of a text (equivalence of form and shape

• Formal equivalence- focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content is concerned with such correspondences as poetry to poetry, sentence to sentence, concept to concept

• Dynamic equivalence- is based on the principle of equivalent effect

Untranslatability.

Untranslatability is a property of a text, or of any utterance, in one language, for which no equivalent text or utterance can be found in another language when translated. Terms are, however, neither exclusively translatable nor exclusively untranslatable; rather, the degree of difficulty of translation depends on their nature, as well as on the translator's knowledge of the languages in question.

Catford devided it into 2 types:

Linguistic untranslatability- occurs when there is no lexical or syntactical substitute in the TL for an SL item.

Cultural untranslatability- occurs when there are no relevant situational feature for SL text due to the absence in the TL culture suitable one (idioms).

4. Bible translated in the Anglophone World.

3 periods of translation of Bible:

• The Greco-Roman period: the first translation of Old Testament was made in the second century BC. Some translations of New Testament were made into Latin, but St.Jerome (Горацій) wasn’t pleased with it and completed the translation of the Hebrew Bible (Староєврейська)

• The Reformation period: translations of Bible were made in all the principal languages of Europe:

-Martin Luther- translated Bible into German and introduced new views about translation equivalence in the scriptures

-William Tyndale- made a translation of New Testament which formed the primary basis for the later development of the King James Version.

• The modern period:

1^st phase- translations into a number of major European languages in response to new discoveries.

2^nd phase- translations were made by missioners into languages of the third world.

Sociolinguistic issues in Bible translation:

1. Canonicity

2. Textual reliability

3. Dialect differences

4. Levels of language

5. Degrees of literalness

6. Differences in formal

7. Supplementary features (a dictionary, map, index)

Principles of translation Bible by Wycliffite

1. the use of scholarly Greek and Hebrew text

2. interpretations based on the best scholarly judgement

3. renderings that will be aurally clear for the intended audience

4. the incorporation of background information into notes, introductions and word list rather than leaving out such information or putting it into the text.

The first translation of the complete Bible into English was the Wycliffite Bible produced between 1380 and 1384.

5. The first Bible translation into a Slavic language was done by two Greek brothers, Cyril and Methodius. They translated: the Halytska Yevanheliya (Galician Gospel), Uchytelni Yevanheliyi (Teaching Gospels)

Pylyp Morachevsky- began translating the four Gospels of the New Testament into Ukrainian. He finished this translation in 1861, and began translating The Acts of the Apostles, The Revelation of Saint John (Apocalypse), and The Psalter. 1936, Morachevsky’s translations of the Gospels were published in Poland,

At the same time Panteleimon Kulish was translating the Holy Scripture. Then he met Pulyui and they got down to translating a Bible together. In 1903- the whole Bible in Ukrainian came out in Vienna.

In more recent years, several new translations of the Holy Bible were done into Ukrainian, and translations of Ivan Ohiyenko and Ivan Khomenko were published in a considerable number of copies, but these publications have not made the Holy Bible available to every Ukrainian who would want to read the Scripture in his or her own language.