- •2.Eng. As a world language.
- •3.Word stress in pg & its morphological consequences.
- •4. The pg phonology. The consonants.
- •5.Grimm’s Law. (1822 was first published in “Deutch Grammar”)
- •6. Voicing of fricatives in pg (Vern’s l.) 1877
- •7. The West Germanic lengthening of consonants.
- •8.The second consonant-shifting.
- •9. The ablaut in the Indo –European l-ges & Germanic l-ges.
- •10.The vowels.
- •12. Inflectional system of pg.
- •13. Categories of verb in Old Germ.L.
- •14. Strong verbs n Gothic.
- •15. Weak verbs in Old Germ.L.
- •Fourth Weak Conjugation
- •16. Preterite-present verbs
- •17. Infinitive, Participle
- •18. Nominals, their categories.
- •19. Categories of noun.
- •21. Strong declension of noun.
- •22. Weak declension of nouns.
- •23. Adjectives: strong and weak declension.
- •24. Pronoun, morphological categories.
- •Demonstrative
- •25. The vocabulary of pg
- •26. The ie legacy, isogloss.
- •27. Common Germ. Stock.
- •28. Borrowings, substratum, superstatum.
- •29. Simple and composite sentences.
- •30. Comparative method.
- •31. The Indo-Europeans.
- •Proto-indo-european
- •Western branch
- •E astern branch
- •32. Tree of ie lang
- •33. The home of Indo-Europeans.
- •34. Kentum and Satem lang-es.
- •35. Pg: concept, division.
- •36. Old North Germ. Lang-es.
- •37. Old West Germ. Lang-es.
- •38. The West Germ. Tree-diagram of lang-es.
- •39. The East-Germ. Tree of lang-es.
- •40. North Germ. Lang-es.
- •41. Old Germ. Alphabet, written records.
- •42. The Runic alphabet, its origin.
- •43. Oe, its literary monuments.
- •44. Old Icelandic, literary monuments. Old Icelandic is usually called Old Norse. Old Norse
- •45. Old Saxon, its written records.
- •46. Pliny’s classification of the Germanic tribes.
- •47. Main sources of information about the Germ. Tribes. The Germ. Tribes in the ad 1.
- •48. The age of migrations: the Visigoths.
- •48. The Ostrogoths.
- •50. Division of Frankish Empire and its linguistic consequences
- •52. Gods, days of week, months.
- •53. The Epoque of Vikings
- •54. Old Frisian ethnic community.
- •55. Oe Heptarchy. Wessex.
- •55. Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians.
- •56. Paganism vs Christianity in og ethnic communities.
10.The vowels.
1. The basic vowel symbols are a, e, i, o, u. They could be both short and long. The set of vowels in Proto-Germanic can be represented in the following way:
back vowels: ā, ō, ū; front vowels: ī, ē.
Note: According to Zhluktenko, originally there were only four long vowels in PG : æ, ī, ū, ō. Later in West Germanic languages æ > ā. Apart from ē, that developed from PIE ē through æ, in Old Germanic languages there appeared one more ē that resulted from diphthong ai in unstressed syllable (Goth. haihait).
In tracing vowel changes in Old Germanic languages we have to distinguish between stressed and unstressed syllables, since these give different results.
There was a strict difference between short and long vowels. There were 8 monophthongs and 3 diphthongs in PG.
PG Vowels
Front Back
Short i, e a, u
Long i, e o, u
Diphthongs: /ai/, /eu/, /au/.
IE short /a/ and /o/ merged in PG short /a/.
IE short /i/, /e/, /u/ could correspond to PG /e/, /i/, /o/.
IE long vowels were unchanged. /i/>/i/, /u/>/u/. IE long /a/ and /o/ merged in PG long /o/.
In Early PG there were 4 long vowels: /i/, /u/, /o/ /e/. Then appeared /a/.
High підняття
i u
Front e Mid o Back
a
Low
11. Umlaut – is a case of regressive assimilation, when the vowel is changed under the influence of the following vowel.
1) i-umlaut (Front Mutation)
2) u-umlaut (Back Mutation)
I-Umlaut /a/, /o/, /u/ change into /e/, if the following vowel is /i/, /i/ or /j/.
Later i, i and j disappeared or changed to e. (dailjan – delan)
I-Umlaut in OE took place in prewritten period on the territory of the British Isles.
*a> æ> e
*a> æ
*o> e
*o> oe> e
*u> y:
*u> y
I-Umlaut in OHG
In OHG Mutation took place starting from the 8th century.
a> a(e)
a > æ
o> ö
o> oe
u> ü
U-Umlaut (Back Mutation)
OE: 7-8 centuries
The short frot vowels æ, e, I were diphthongized when the back vowels u, o, a were present in the following syllable.
i> io OE sifon> siofon
e> eo OE efor> eofor
æ> ea OE saro> searu
This process differs from I-Umlaut in 3 respects:
it effected almost exclusively short vowels
it effected only front vowels
its results are less unifor m
Palatal mutation before ‘h’
e> eo> ie> i
OE cneht> cneoht> cnieht> cniht