1.3.1.3. Theological Paradigm

The spreading of Christianity in Europe at the beginning of the new era promoted the development of the new theological paradigm. The issue of the nature-humankind relationship was reconsidered on the basis of the idea that both nature and humankind were created by God.

Since much attention was paid to the difference between human beings with immortal souls and other, soul-less, “creatures,” scholars were discouraged from drawing comparisons between them. Moreover, the founding fathers of the church urged Christians to concentrate upon God. Studying the “Creation” per se, unless driven by sinful curiosity (the lust of your eyes, according to St. Augustine), was only permissible if aimed at understanding the Immortal and Eternal and not at satisfying the futile and transient quest for knowledge, as Thomas Aquinas asserted. Hence, living beings were of interest only in terms of symbols and allegories. The lamb, fish and the grape vine symbolized Christ.

The symbolical perception of nature, nonetheless, allowed for some comparisons between living organisms and the political system of human society. In terms of the medieval worldview, it seemed natural to draw on organismic metaphors that were earlier used by both Plato and Aristotle. In the Middle Ages, such metaphors were re-emphasized by Marsilio from Padua, who regarded the state as a “living being.” “John of Salisbury, in Policratus (c.1159) argued that society was like a biological organism. The commonwealth was the body, with the king as its head, the church as its soul, and all other members of the body politics performing lesser functions” (quotation from: Somit & Peterson, 2011, p. 4). Similar analogies are contained in the works by Thomas Aquinas. Medieval Christian theology took it for granted that the Universe in its perfection existed for the benefit of human beings (as Raymond of Sabund claimed). This lent support to the idea that man has the dominant status in the world.

Catholic (and, subsequently, Protestant) theology preached the supremacy of humankind in the Universe. In the opinion of the non-traditional (“environmental”) clergy of the 20th century, which included Kenneth Bouling and Lynn White, this promoted aggressive and exploitative attitudes to nature and finally caused the present-day ecological crisis. As early as in the Middle Ages, a theological justification was provided for the ruthless exploitation of the biosphere that has been characteristic of the recent scientific and technological epoch.

However, Kennet Cauthen, who produced the book Christian Biopolitics (1971), believed that Christianity also included a quite different trend of thought. It promoted a more “biopolitical” attitude toward life. Although acknowledging the difference between the status of humans and of other life forms, it emphasized the oneness of man with the whole creation and his responsibility for it. Cauthen (1997) analyzed relevant sections of the Bible, particularly the famous words of the Lord: “Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth” (Genesis, 1:28; Bible, King James Version). He drew the conclusion that the Bible did not encourage people to just exploit nature. Instead, it called on humankind to take care of all creatures on the Earth as well as to take the responsibility for them. Only on this condition may humans use natural resources for their benefit. Of special interest were the views and practical activities of Francis from Assisi, the founder of the Franciscan Order. Apart from his other merits (including an extremely ascetic, pious lifestyle), he was renowned for the care he took of animals and for his conviction that all animals and plants constantly praised God in their special ways.