8. Sentence, models and classifications

S - the main and the highest unit of speech. It's the only unit of speech capable of expressing a complete idea/thought. It's the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose. Henry Sweet: Sentence is a word or a group of words capable of expressing a complete thought. semanticaspect Chomsky(transformational generative grammar) The surface structure of the sentences are diff.: The hunter killed the lion. The lion was killed by the hunter. The deep structure of both sentences is the same. Fillmore : The actors are classified into the following: the agent, the patient,experiencer, beneficiary, instrument, locative.Deep casesagentive, instrumental, dative, factive, locative, objective. 4 types of situation state, process, action, action-action-process . transformational approach. sent: kernel: J is heroic, J is in the room, J worked, J paid the bill, J became a hero, J felt sad, J had a car. Austin classified speech acts: locutionary, illocutionary(process), perlocutionary(effect); 5 classes of speech act: expositives,verdictives, exersitives, behavioties, commissives.Searle: representatives, directives, commissives(promises, menaces), expressives, decorations(replies,arguments).pragmatic types of sent. constantives, directives, questions, promises, menaces, performatives Every sentence has several main features:

1. a certain intonation structure (depends on the aim of communication)

2. a certain grammatical structure (division into sentence members and their arrangement)

3. a certain communicative structure (the theme-rheme structure)

Every S is characterized by predication, which establishes relations of the named phenomenon to actual life, the named object to reality. Formally, predication is expressed thru tense and mood.

Every S performs 2 main functions:

1. nominative - tas a state: Jack knew the answer a process: Jack learned the answer

an action: Jack worked action process: Jack told Jill

2. predicative - the modal aspect of the S. The general semantic category is defined as exposing the connections between the named objects and the surrounding reality.

Structure of the Sentence

As S is a communicative unit, the primary classification of it must be based on communicative principle. According to the purpose of communication S can be:

1. Declarative (expresses a statement)

2. Imperative (expresses inducement, request, order)

3. Interrogative (inquiry, request)

All of them can be exclamatory or non-exclamatory

According to the number of predicative groups:

1. Simple 2Composite (divided into compound and complex). Here the connection between the parts can besyndetic or asyndetic.

According to the use of secondary members:

1. extended 2non-extended

According to the number of main members: one-member or two-member One-member sentences are divided into:

1. nominative - substantive, adjectival

2. imperative - verb in the imperative mood

3. verbless imperative (Out with it!)

4. exclamatory (What a beautiful night!)

5. infinitive

a. without the particle = rhetorical (Why not go there?) h. be+inf+V3 (To have done such a thing!)

6. gerundial (No smoking!)

7. sentence-words (interjections)

According to the completeness of the structure:

1. complete2 elliptical (a word form can be omitted)

a. in the subject position (Looks like rain.)

b. in the subject and part of predicate (Seen them?)

c. in predicate position (Who lies here? - Jack.)

According to the nature of the subject:

1. Personal:

a. personal proper (Jack...)

b. indefin ite personal (Somebody...)

c. general personal (They say...)

2. Impersonal:

a. S describing phenomena of nature (It's raining)

b. S expressing time/distance (It's 8 o'clock)

c. S expressing certain state of things (It's done with him)

Simple S

It is a S in which only one predicative line is expressed. According to this definition, a sentence with two predicates referring to the same subject can't be considered simple.

The SS is organized in the system of functions expressing positions. The parts are arranged in a hierarchy connection:

1. The subject - the person-modifier of the S

2. The predicate - a process-modifier of the subject

3. The object - a substance-modifier of the process

4. The adverbial - a quality-modifier of the process part

5. The attribute - a quality-modifier of the substantive part

6. The parenthesis enclosure — a detached speaker-bound modifier of any part

7. The interjectional enclosure - a speaker-bound emotional modifier

divided into their subgroups according to their successive subordination.

Composite sentence

CtS - Can be presented as derived from two or more simple sentences. It is a syntactic unit having more than one predicative line (subject-predicate group). Composite S are subdivided into compound and complex.

Compound sentence

CdS - is a S whose parts are independent from each other. In a compound S 2 or more independent clauses are connected by means of coordination. A compound sentence can have two types of connection: syndetic and asyndetic.

1. Syndetic connection:

a. Copulative (and, not only ... but, both, neither... nor, nor)

b. Disjunctive (or, either ... or, or else, otherwise)

d.Adversative (but, yet, still, however, nevertheless, whereas, while)e. Causative-consecutive (for, therefore, so, accordingly, then, hence) h. I don'(see anything for it is dark.

Complex sentences

CxS are formed on the principle of subordination of clauses. There is a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. There are five types of subordinate clauses:

1 Subject clause

What I want to do is to save us both

2 Predicative clause

Our attitude is that facts are facts

3 Object clause

I don't know what you are talking about

4 Attributive clause

a. attributive relative

• restrictive/descriptive): / think my father is the best man I have ever known.

• non-restrictive: In this room, which was never used, a light was burning.

b. attributive appositive

He stopped in the hope that she would speak.

5. Adverbial clause that has many types:

a. Time (when, while, as, until, before, after, since, as soon as, whenever)

b. Place (where, wherever)

c. Cause (because, as, since)

d. Result (so that, so)

e. Purpose (that, in order to, so that)

f. Condition (if, in case, unless, once)

g. Concession (though, although, even if, even though, whatever, however, no matter what) h. Exception (except that)

i. Manner and comparison (than, as, as ... as, not so, as if, as though, like)

9. Text grammar is a new branch of linguistics. It deals with the text, the Highest unit of speech. One sentence cannot expresses the complete idea, which is clear without any context. Usually we have to produce a whole sequence of sentences which forms a discourse – the process of communication.

The text is a sequence of linguistic units joined together by semantic connections and characterized by integrity, wholeness and cohesion.

Accordig to R. De Beaugrande (Бугранд) and W. Dressler the text is a communicative occurrence (событие) which meets seven standards of textuality: cohesion (сцепление) and coherence (связность), intentionality (намеренность), acceptability (воспринимаемость), informativity, situationality (ситуальность), and intertextuality.

Cohesion is the connection of text components on the basis of grammatical rules and relations. The standard example of cohesion is the relations between the pronoun and its antecedent (предыдущее), e.g. We are passing a film poster and he said, “That’s a good film: Have you seen it?

There are the following means of cohesion in English: parenthesis (вводное предложение), word order, the use of articles and pronouns, forms of the verb, ellipsis, recurrence, coordinating conjunctions (согласованные связи).

Coherence concerns the deep structure of the text. It is the temporal and spatial (пространственный) continuity of events. It encloses (заключать в себе) meaningful and cognitive relations in the text. The following text can’t be considered coherent, though the cohesion is present here.

It was dark and the sun was shining brightly. An old woman of 16 was sitting next to him. She was reading a book.

Intentionality is the intention of the text maker to build up a cohesive and coherent text and achieve some definite communicative purpose.

The term acceptability as well as intentionality is the expectation of the recipient to get a cohesive and coherent text appropriate in definite communicative situations.

Informativity expresses the theme of the text, the new and unexpected information for the text comprehender.

Situationality reflects the factors which make the text relevant (уместный) and actual for a definite communicative situation. Having come to the lecture on Theoretical Grammar the students don’t expect to listen to the problems of nuclear physics.

Intertextuality reflects the correlation of the text with a definite type of text and the correlation with other texts. In the first case we deal with the typical, formal features of a particular text, for example an interview, a report, etc. In the second case intertextuality presents the pariphrasis of famous saying and proverbs, titles of the books, etc. E.g. the transformation of W. Shakespeare’s “Much Ado about Nothing” into Much ado about bluffing. (Economist, April 13, 2002) Много шума из блефа.

Prof. Galperin defines the text as a complete speech act, which is characterized by six standards: completeness (logical and semantic), written form, abstract model, delimitation into title and SPU/s, cohesion, and communicative intention.

According to Prof. Moskalskaya there are two basic units above the sentence: the supra-phrasal unity (a microtext) and the speech unity (a macrotext).

SPU is a grammatically organized sequence of sentences forming a textual unity. The transition from one theme to another denotes the beginning of a new SPU.

The communicative integrity presents the theme-rheme sequence of the text. Each subsequent sentence in the SPU is based on the previous one moving forward from the known information to the new, unknown one. There are several models of the theme-rheme structure in a SPU.

The structural integrity reflects the grammatical connections between the sentences, the cohesion of the text. Speaking about the cohesion of the text we should mention two types of relations in the text: anaphoric and cataphoric.

Cataphoric - in the house that jack built where the refers forward to the specifying that Jack built.

Anaphoric - Jack built a house. It was large, where it refers back to the house.

In the printed text, there are paragraphs. The paragraph (episode) is a stretch of written (printed) literary text delimited by a new line at the beginning. In typical narrative discourse, major changes in time, place, or characters correspond to paragraph (episode) boundaries though they do not themselves represent such boundaries. The paragraph is also used for the introduction of utterances of a dialogue, as well as for the introduction of separate points in various enumerations.

Blohk: 2 types of text: monologue (one sequence direction – cumuleme) and dialogue (2 sequence direction – occurseme)