15. Articulatory classification of English consonants and vowels.

Every sound belongs to one or other of two main classes known as vowels and consonants. Vowels are classified by lack of obstruction to the air stream, defused muscular tension, weak air stream. C.- articulatory obstruction to the air steam, muscular tension concentrated in the place of obstruction, strong air stream.

The particular quality of a c. depend on the work of the vocal cords, the position of the soft palate and the kind of noise that results when the tongue or the lips obstruct the air passage. An articulatory obstruction may be complete (is formed when the organs of speech come in contact with each other and the air passage through the mouth is blocked) or incomplete (an articulatory organ is held close to a point of articulation without blocking the air passage).

C. are classified according to the main principles:

1. To the type of obstruction

Occlusive – produce with the complete obstruction to the air stream they may be noise (plosives) [p, b, t, k, g] and affricates and sonorants [m, n, ŋ]

Constructive – produced with an incomplete obstruction and may be noise or fricatives [v, f, s, z, h, g] and sonorant median [w,, r, j] and lateral one [l]. In pronunciation of which the air passage is rather wide, the air passing through the mouth doesn’t produce audible friction and tone prevails over noise.

2. To the manner of production the noise

Plosives – the organs of speech form a complete obstruction, which is than quickly released with plosion [p, b, t, d, k, g]

Affricates – the speech organs forms a complete obstruction, which is than released so slowly, that considerable friction accursed at the point of articulation [ch, dz]

Fricatives - the speech organs forms a incomplete obstruction and the air passes producing audible friction [b, f, ð, Ө, s, z, h, g]

Sonorance: 1)occlusive the speech organs forms a complete obstruction, which is not released. The soft palate is lowed and the air escapes through the nasal cavity [m, n, ŋ]

2) constrictive: a) median – the air escapes without audible friction over the central part of the tongue the sides of the tongue being raised [w, r, j]

b) lateral – the tongue is pressed against the alveolar ridge or the teeth and the sides of the tongue are lowed, leaving the air passage open between tem [l].

3. To the active organs of speech

Labial – 1) bilabial - articulated by the 2 lips [p,b]

2) labial-dental – articulated with the low lip, against the upper teeth [v,f]

Lingual – 1) fore lingual – articulated by the blade of the tip or by the tip against the upper teeth or alveolar ridge: a) apical [ð, Ө, t, d, l, n, s, z] b) cacuminal [r]

2) medium lingual –articulated with the front of the tongue against the hard palate [j]

3) back lingual – articulated by the front of the tongue against the soft palate. [k, g, ŋ]

Glottal – produced in the glottis [h]

4. to the point of articulation

Dental

Alveolar

Palatal-alveolar

Post-alveolar

Palatal

Velar

5. to the work of the vocal cords

Voiced

Voiceless

6. to the force of articulation

Relatively strong (forties)

Relatively weak (lenis)

English voiced c are lenis, English voiceless c are forties

7. to the position of the soft palate

Oral - are produced with the soft palate raised and the air escapes through the mouth

Nasal – are produced with the soft palate lowed, while the air passage through the mouth is blocked. The air escapes through the nasal cavity

№17 Phonetic expressivity and graphical means in stylistics

Not only the meaning of the words is important for our perception of the message, but also the way they sound. According to Galperin, aesthetic function is realized by means of phonetics due to peculiar manner in which phonemes and words are joined together in a phrase, sentence, text. Stylistic phonetics includes the study of euphonic arrangement of the utterance, intonation, rhythm, rhyme, and combination of sounds. Phonetic stylistic devices present the set of sound inventory in which the meaning of a word or the general mood of the text is supported by the sound image. Skrebnev distinguishes 2 branches of stylistic phonetics:

paradigmatic - phonetics of units. It studies the correspondence (discrepancy) b\w form and meaning (sound + sense). The sounds are associated with some images created by our cultural and national background and the peculiarity of sound perception.

syntagmatic - deals with prosody and interaction of speech sounds in sequences. Prosody includes tonality, length, force, volume, stress (emphatic, logic, word, phrasal) - all the components of intonation. Tonality can range from tender, merry soft to harsh, cold, threatening,, reproaching. Emphatic stress helps to show the speaker's attitude to certain facts, his admiration, surprise. As for intonation variants, there exists as many possibilities as there are people and psychological states. In verse rhythm depends on metrical pattern and is usually rapid. Prose is also rhythmically organized by means of repetition of images, of text parallel syntactical constructions.

Euphony (Greek "sweetness of sounds") - produced by long vowels and liquid consonants, or Assonance(vocalic alliteration) - repetition of similar stressed vowels sounds to achieve a particular effect of euphony in the middle or the end of a phrase/line. According to Arnold, assonance is vocalic alliteration ([ei] in maiden, radiant creates an image of sth light and beautiful). The opposite of assonance is dissonance - peculiar arrangement of cacophonous, harsh sounds, their repetition.Another device which serves to create an image in people's minds is called onomatopoeia. It is the combination of speech sounds aiming at sounds produced in nature by objects, people, animals. It is based on metonymy. There are 2 types of onomatopoeia:direct - imitation of natural sounds (bow-wow, splash, mew, whisper, bang),verbalization of extralinguistic sounds:indirect - echo-writing. It doesn't reproduce the sound, but expresses it by means of repetition: Where the water had dripped from the tap in a small pond he sipped with his straight mouth, softly drank through straight gums into his long body, silently (imitation

of a hissing sound). The theory of the sense-independence of separate sounds: it presupposes that sounds speak for

themselves and convey certain meaning: fl] - moving

[o, u] - melancholy, sorrow: gloomy, mourn,doom

[-att-] - particle movement: shatter, scatter

Some linguists (Galperin) don't support it: there are no objective

data in favor of the theory.

Alliteration - repeating and playing upon the same letter. Consonants, especially at the beginning of words, are repeated.. Examples of it can be found in tongue twisters, comic lyrics, book titles ("Pride and prejudice"), set expressions (the last but not the least, now or never, good as gold, forgive and forget,). Consonance - close repetition of identical consonant sounds before or after different vowels: slip-slop

paronomasia- co-occurrence of paronyms (words which are similar in sound, but different in meaning)involves play upon words.

In a versed line a unit of rhythm or a group of syllables forming a metrical unit is called foot - the smallest segment of the line consisting of one stressed and one or two unstressed syllables. Meter refers to the pattern of stressed/unstressed syllables in verse. In English verse meter is based on stress, and Arnold distinguishes 2 types of them:

• strong-stress itteten there are equal spends of time between the stressed syllables within which a different number of syllables can be put. It is characteristic of oral speech.

• syllable-stress meter: introduced by Chasseur. It is the alteration of one stressed syllable and a certain number of unstressed syllables.

There are five possible combinations of stressed and unstressed syllables. A foot of 2 syllables has either the 1st or the 2nd syllable stressed; a foot of 3 syllables has either the 1^st, the 2^nd or the 3^rd syllable stressed. Thus, we have 2 disyllabic varieties of feet (iamb, trochee) and 3 trisyllabic ones (dactyl, amphibrach, anapaest).

rhyme - a complete or partial coincidence of acoustic impressions produced by stressed syllables. Types of rhyme: & according to the position of rhyme in stanza (Arnold's):

3. end rhyme - the most frequent one.

4. internal: / am the daughter of earth and water.

according to the degree of identity (Galperin's):

3. complete (full or perfect) - exact correspondence of sounds

4. incomplete:vowel: flash -fresh -press (only consonants differ);consonant: tail - tool - trouble;dissonant: devil - evil according to the number of identical sounds: poor: buy - cry;rich: gravity - longevity.

+ according to morphological peculiarities:

2. simple (one word): stone - alone\ pray - grey:compound (broken word group): bottom -forgot em - shot im. Such rhymes give theutterance colloquial or humorous touch.

+ according to the position of stress (Skrebnev's):

2. male (masculine, single) - rhymes ending with a stressed syllable: understand - hand,dreams - streams.;female (double) - last syllable is unstressed: duty - beauty, very - merry.;dactylic (triple) - 1 stressed syllable is followed by 2 unstressed ones: tenderly -slenderly, prettily - wittily.

+ according to the position of rhyming lines:

4. adjacent: aab4. couplets: aa

5. crossing: abab5. triple: aaa

6. ring (envelope): abba

Two or more verse lines make a stanza - a verse segment composed of a number lines having a definite measure and rhyming system which is repeated throughout a poem. There are several types of stanza:ballad stanza: contains 4 lines, in which the 1^st and the 4^th have 4 feet (tetrameters), whilethe 2^nd and the 3^rd have 3 feet (trimeters). Only the 2^nd and the 4^th lines are rhymed: abcb.;heroic couplet: rhymed iambic pentameters. by Chasseur. The pattern is aa, bb, cc.;Spenserian stanza: 9 lines (8 iambic pentameters + 1 iambic hexameter): ababbcbcc;ottava rima: an eight-line iambic pentameter of Italian origin (Byron): abababcc;sonnet: 14 lines (iambic pentameters). There exist 3 basic forms of sonnet:sonnet cycle - a series of sonnets devoted to as particular theme or individual.; crown of sonnets - a sequence of 7 sonnets linked to form a "crown" - a panegyric to aperson concerned. The last line of each of the first 6 sonnets is the first line of the followingone, while the 7^th sonnet is made of these repeating lines.;blank verse: 5 unrhymed lines (iambic pentameters). Visual poetry:

5. altar poem - a poem in which the stanzas are so arranged that they form a certain design ona page;

6. pattern poem - lines are arranged to represent the subject of a poem or to suggest action,emotion, feelings.

7. palindrome - a word or a sentence which can be read the same in both directions:

8. acrostic - a poem in which the initial letters of each line make a word when readdownwards.

According to Kukharenko, they serve to convey those type of emotion that in the oral speech are expressed by intonation and stress. Graphic picture of speech doesn't reflect all the peculiarities of pronunciation, but it helps to attract the reader's attention emphasize the most essential details, figures of speech.

Emphatic punctuation (dashes, exclamation and question marks in particular) aims at conveying the emotional coloring of the text, to create emotional pauses, to suggest some implication (irony). Emphatic punctuation is used in many syntactical stylistic devices: suspense serves to express uncertainty, anticipation, embarrassment; aposiopesis - a rhetorical device when the speech is intentionally broken off by the speaker, and the sentence is left unfinished; rhetorical questions. Inverted commas are used to introduce quotations, direct speech, or thoughts of the characters. In addition, they may also imply ironical attitude. Dashes or suspension marks point to a prolonged pause and are often accompanied with time fillers ugh, well, so, er, etc. Even full stops perform their stylistic function. When describing rapidly changing scenes or actions authors break their narration into short sentences. Thus, full stops help to create vivid pictures and convey dynamic character of events. At the same time, the lack of any punctuation marks is even more expressive, and contemporary writers favor this stylistic device (stream of conscious, eternal ties between cultures, generations, etc.)

The changed type (italics, bold type) or spelling are used to indicate the additional stress on the emphasized word or its part. Capital letters also witness the loudness of the voice. Sometimes he letters that should be capitalized remain small.

Graphical fixation of phonetic peculiarities of pronunciation with the ensuing violation of the accepted spelling - graphon - is characteristic of prose only and is used to indicate blurred, incoherent or careless pronunciation caused by temporary (tender age, intoxication, ignorance of the discussed theme) or by permanent factors (social, territorial, educational, etc. status).

2) multiplication: (laaaarge)

3) hyphenation, scanning: (g-irl).

Means of creating visual image

4. division of the text into paragraphs;

5. division of the poem into stanzas

6. pattern-poetry ( стихи):

4) acrostic:

3. First letter of each line spells out a hidden message/ or last letter - telestic.

4. 1^st and the last letters have hidden massage(double acrostic)