1. Fact mood, (corresponds to indicative mood in general)

2. Thought mood.

• Subjunctive mood.

• Conditional mood.

• Permissive mood.

• Compulsive mood.

The majority of linguists both Russian and foreign think that analytical forms of mood do exist in English. Such as: should+inf, wouls+inf, may/might+inf.

But now all scholars agree with such a point of view. Some admitting the presence of the subjunctive mood divide it into smaller semantic categories single out conditionals as a separate mood or opdative mood.

Many scholars think that the combination of modal verb (word+inf) does not belong to morphology but to the word building or syntax.

Article.

I. There are two theories:

1. Article + noun is analytical form of a noun;

2. Article is a special functional part of speech and article + noun is a special combination (phrase).

In the 1^st theory article will perform auxiliary function of analytical construction and it would be a morphological indication of a noun which does not possess any lexical meaning. This theory is not convincing because article + noun is not such an insupportable whole as other analytical constructions. Article is simply a determinator of a noun. That's why it is possible to substitute articles by pronouns while in analytical construction no substitutions are possible.

II. How many articles in English?

1St approach:

• Definite

• Indefinite

But there is an "omission of article" (when there is no article). This theory is obviously inadequate since there is not the slightest reason to believe that the article in such cases was ever "omitted".

2^nd approach:

• Definite

• Indefinite + "absence of the article".

3^rd approach:

• Definite

• Indefinite

• Zero

Only if we treat article not as the separate word but as a separate morpheme.

Вопрос № 6 Phrase

There is no unity among linguists concerning the definition of the term "phrase" According to Russian linguists the term "word combination" can only be applied to such groups of words which contain at least two notional words forming a grammatical unit, (fine weather, speak English fluently). Western scholars have a different view on the problem. They consider any combination of two or more words which constitutes a unit to be a phrase, (in the morning). Henry Sweet

A phrase is a combination of words, which don't form a full sentence. H. Whitehall

A phrase is a cluster of two or more words which is a grammatical unit, but is not an analytical form of some word. The constituent element of the phrase may belong to any part of speech. The difference between a phrase and a sentence is fundamental one. A phrase is means of naming some phenomena or processes, just as word is. Each component of a phrase can undergo grammatical changes in accordance with grammatical categories represented in it, without destroying the identity of the phrase, (writes a letter, wrote a letter, is writing letters -grammatical modifications of one phrase). In a sentence every unit has its definite form. Another important issue is that a phrase has no intonation, which is one of the most important features of a sentence. A classical word group is a non-predicative unit, because a word group doesn't carry predication. Only sentences have this function.CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASESProfessor Blokh

He distinguishes two types of phrases:

1. Notional phrases

a. equipotent connection (words related to one another on an equal rank -prose and poetry, quick but not careless)

b. dominational connection (one of the constituents of the phrase is principal which is called "kernel element" - a careful observer)

2. Formative phrases (at the table, with difficulty)

3. Functional phrases (from out of, so that) Barkhudarov

He classifies all phrases according to the way the headword is expressed. He distinguishes:

3. Coordinate phrases (you and me)

4. Subordinate - always has a head and an adjacent word, classified from the point of view of how the head word is expressed:

a. nounal (mild weather)

b. adjectival (dark red)

c. verbal (to hear a noise)

d. adverbial (very well)

3. Predicative - a special kind of word group with predicative relations between the nominal and the verbal part. Secondary predication is meant here (no such phrases in Russian):

a. complex object (I want you to go)

b. complex subject (He is known to be)

c. for-phrase (It is difficult for me to know)

d. gerundial complex

e. absolute nominative participial construction

Leonard Bloomfield

Distinguishes two main classes of phrases

1. Endocentric (headed)

a. subordination (peace movement, poor John)

b. coordination (men and women, Mary and Peter - two heads are inside the phrase)

2. Exocentric (non-headed)

a. syntactic predicative relations (John ran away)

b. morphological prepositional phrase (beside John)

Modern approach

1. Headed phrases (head word and adjunct)

a. according to the type of distribution

i. progressive (right-hand distribution of the adjunct - the list of names)

ii. regressive (left-hand distribution of the adjunct - a country doctor)

b. according to the way the head-word is expressed

i. substantival (a candidate for a prize)

ii. adjectival (pretty bad)

iii. verbal (to write a letter)

iv. adverbial (very suddenly)

2. Non-headed phrases

a. according to the degree of dependency

i. independent (Mary and John, he laughed)

ii. dependent (his own (dog))

b. according to the class

i. one-class (you and me)

ii. different class (she nodded)

SYNTACTIC RELATIONS OF WORDS IN A WORD GROUP Here one should distinguish the following types:Agreement (concord)

a method of expressing a syntactical relationship which consists in making a subordinate word take a form similar to that of the word to which it subordinates. In the modern English language this type refers only to the category of number. (These letters vs. This letter). But the word doesn't always have to follow the noun in its category of number (The UN is an organization).Government

The use of subordinate word form required by its head word. In English this type is not very significant. The only exception - objective case of personal pronouns and the pronoun who when they are subordinate to a verb or follow a preposition, (invite them)Enclosure (suggested by Elmslev)

Some element of a phrase enclosed between two parts of another element (the then government)Formunation

When a strict order is applied (these important decisions, but important these decisions)InterdependenceSubject-predicate relations (he goes)

Вопрос №7

Study of Parts of Speech

POS - lexico-grammatical categories. In modern linguistics POS are discriminated on the basis of use of three criteria:

4. semantic (meaning) - common to all words of a given class and constituting its essence

5. form - morphological characteristics

6. function - syntactic role of words

Henry Sweet was the first who outlined these three features but neglected them in the classification of function in the sentence:

2. declinable - that is capable of inflections (Noun - pronoun functioning as a noun, numerals, gerund functioning as a noun; Adjective - pronouns, adjectives, numerals, adjective particles; Verb - finite verbs, non-finite verbs, verbials that don't express predication but keep all the other meaning of the verb)

2. indeclinable - incapable of inflections (adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, articles)

Otto Jespersen paid attention to form:

3. declinable - Substantives (also proper names), adjectives, pronouns (also numerals and pronominal adverbs), verbs (also verbials)

4. indeclinable - Particles (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections)

Randolph Quirk worked out a classification based on semantic principle. POS are singled out and classified due to generalizing grammatical meaning:

3. objects - have the same semantic nature but differ on the level of form (they can be personified and non-personified)

4. characteristics - express certain functional notion (intensifiers - generally particles; determinators- demonstrative pronouns and articles; hesitations words; autoclitics - self-describing words)

Charles Fries used structural approach employing methods of distribution and substitution. According to this method POS were singled out from the flow of speech according to their structural characteristics. He classified words into POS according to the position they have. All words that could occupy the same position in the English sentence must belong to the same POS. He employed the following testing frames:

A. The concert was good

B. The clerk remembered the tax

C. The team went there

Using them, Fries singled out 4 classes of notional words. Class 1 - concert; Class 2 - remembered; Class 3 - good; Class 4 - there. Lexical meaning can be separated from structural meaning.

There are also 15 groups of functional words: Group A - determiners; Group В - modal verbs; Group С - negative particle "not"; Group D - adverbs of degree, coordinating conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliary verb "do", introductory "there", interrogative pronouns, subordinating conjunctions.

Academician Vinogradov became the developer of the traditional approach. All three components are included into his classification that divides POS into notional and functional.

3. Notional: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, numeral

4. Functional: article, preposition, conjunction, interjection, particle, modal words.

But some Russian scholars outlined modal verbs as a non-traditional POS: modal words and state words.

Modal Words:

4. Syntactic function - parenthesis

5. Meaning - modal words render the speaker's attitude to speech, show the evaluation of the relation between action and reality

6. Form - formal characteristics are not essential

Modal words can be classified according to the semantics:

5. M W of necessity (of course)

6. Of probability, expressing certainty (certainly, surely)

7. Expressing doubt (perhaps, maybe)

8. So-called adverbs (really)

State Words were first singled out by Ilyish. They express the meaning of state and function as a part of predicative after the auxiliary verbs (asleep, awake). Noun + state word = attributive (a man asleep in his chair). Ilyish also thinks that the following words belong to the category of state words (He is at school. It's a pity).

2. State Words Ilyish was the first who noticed them. Meaning of sate. Function as a part of predicate after the auxiliary verbs (asleep, awake). Noun + state word = attributives (a man asleep in his chair). Ilyish also thinks that the following words belong to the category of state words (He is at school. It's a pity)

Notional POS: noun, adjective, verb.

Functional: articles, demonstrative, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, interjection

Sentence, models and classifications

S - the main and the highest unit of speech. It's the only unit of speech capable of expressing a complete idea/thought. It's the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose. Henry Sweet: Sentence is a word or a group of words capable of expressing a complete thought. semanticaspect Chomsky(transformational generative grammar) The surface structure of the sentences are diff.: The hunter killed the lion. The lion was killed by the hunter. The deep structure of both sentences is the same. Fillmore : The actors are classified into the following: the agent, the patient,experiencer, beneficiary, instrument, locative.Deep casesagentive, instrumental, dative, factive, locative, objective. 4 types of situation state, process, action, action-action-process . transformational approach. sent: kernel: J is heroic, J is in the room, J worked, J paid the bill, J became a hero, J felt sad, J had a car. Austin classified speech acts: locutionary, illocutionary(process), perlocutionary(effect); 5 classes of speech act: expositives,verdictives, exersitives, behavioties, commissives.Searle: representatives, directives, commissives(promises, menaces), expressives, decorations(replies,arguments).pragmatic types of sent. constantives, directives, questions, promises, menaces, performatives Every sentence has several main features:

4. a certain intonation structure (depends on the aim of communication)

5. a certain grammatical structure (division into sentence members and their arrangement)

6. a certain communicative structure (the theme-rheme structure)

Every S is characterized by predication, which establishes relations of the named phenomenon to actual life, the named object to reality. Formally, predication is expressed thru tense and mood.

Every S performs 2 main functions:

1. nominative - tas a state: Jack knew the answer a process: Jack learned the answer

an action: Jack worked action process: Jack told Jill

2. predicative - the modal aspect of the S. The general semantic category is defined as exposing the connections between the named objects and the surrounding reality.

Structure of the Sentence

As S is a communicative unit, the primary classification of it must be based on communicative principle. According to the purpose of communication S can be:

4. Declarative (expresses a statement)

5. Imperative (expresses inducement, request, order)

6. Interrogative (inquiry, request)

All of them can be exclamatory or non-exclamatory

According to the number of predicative groups:

2. Simple 2Composite (divided into compound and complex). Here the connection between the parts can besyndetic or asyndetic.

According to the use of secondary members:

2. extended 2non-extended

According to the number of main members: one-member or two-member One-member sentences are divided into:

6. nominative - substantive, adjectival

7. imperative - verb in the imperative mood

8. verbless imperative (Out with it!)

9. exclamatory (What a beautiful night!)

10. infinitive

a. without the particle = rhetorical (Why not go there?) h. be+inf+V3 (To have done such a thing!)

6. gerundial (No smoking!)

7. sentence-words (interjections)

According to the completeness of the structure:

2. complete2 elliptical (a word form can be omitted)

a. in the subject position (Looks like rain.)

b. in the subject and part of predicate (Seen them?)

c. in predicate position (Who lies here? - Jack.)

According to the nature of the subject:

1. Personal:

a. personal proper (Jack...)

b. indefin ite personal (Somebody...)

c. general personal (They say...)

2. Impersonal:

a. S describing phenomena of nature (It's raining)

b. S expressing time/distance (It's 8 o'clock)

c. S expressing certain state of things (It's done with him)

Simple S

It is a S in which only one predicative line is expressed. According to this definition, a sentence with two predicates referring to the same subject can't be considered simple.

The SS is organized in the system of functions expressing positions. The parts are arranged in a hierarchy connection:

8. The subject - the person-modifier of the S

9. The predicate - a process-modifier of the subject

10. The object - a substance-modifier of the process

11. The adverbial - a quality-modifier of the process part

12. The attribute - a quality-modifier of the substantive part

13. The parenthesis enclosure — a detached speaker-bound modifier of any part

14. The interjectional enclosure - a speaker-bound emotional modifier

divided into their subgroups according to their successive subordination.

Composite sentence

CtS - Can be presented as derived from two or more simple sentences. It is a syntactic unit having more than one predicative line (subject-predicate group). Composite S are subdivided into compound and complex.

Compound sentence

CdS - is a S whose parts are independent from each other. In a compound S 2 or more independent clauses are connected by means of coordination. A compound sentence can have two types of connection: syndetic and asyndetic.

1. Syndetic connection:

a. Copulative (and, not only ... but, both, neither... nor, nor)

b. Disjunctive (or, either ... or, or else, otherwise)

d.Adversative (but, yet, still, however, nevertheless, whereas, while)e. Causative-consecutive (for, therefore, so, accordingly, then, hence) h. I don'(see anything for it is dark.

Complex sentences

CxS are formed on the principle of subordination of clauses. There is a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. There are five types of subordinate clauses:

1 Subject clause

What I want to do is to save us both

2 Predicative clause

Our attitude is that facts are facts

3 Object clause

I don't know what you are talking about

4 Attributive clause

a. attributive relative

• restrictive/descriptive): / think my father is the best man I have ever known.

• non-restrictive: In this room, which was never used, a light was burning.

b. attributive appositive

He stopped in the hope that she would speak.

5. Adverbial clause that has many types:

a. Time (when, while, as, until, before, after, since, as soon as, whenever)

b. Place (where, wherever)

c. Cause (because, as, since)

d. Result (so that, so)

e. Purpose (that, in order to, so that)

f. Condition (if, in case, unless, once)

g. Concession (though, although, even if, even though, whatever, however, no matter what) h. Exception (except that)

i. Manner and comparison (than, as, as ... as, not so, as if, as though, like)

TEXT GRAMMAR

Text as a linguistic unit was recognized very recently. Before that the largest grammatically arranged unit was sentence. Later it was shown that sentences in speech do not exist independently. They are interconnected semantically and syntactically. Text is not a number of consequent sentences but a syntactic unity arranged accordingly to certain rules.

In 1970 text linguistics appeared. Text was studied by Tony Van Deik, Halliday, Vetvitska, Арутюнова, Чахоян.

The main problem of text linguistics is concerned with the rules according to which a text is composed. The text is a whole in two aspects:

1. it has semantic (inward) connection.

2. syntactic (outward) connection

The text is a siquence of lingv. voc. unit gained together by semant. connection and caracterised by integrity, wholeness and cohesion. Beaugrande and Dressler. The text is communicative occurance, which meets 7 standarts of textuality: cohesion, coherence, intentionality, exeptability, informatability, situatability, intertextuality. 1. Cohesion- is the main text property concerning the surface structure of the text. It’s the connection of text components on the basic of gram.rules and relations(relations between pronoun and antecedent) Following means of c. in Eng. word order, articles and pronouns, forms of verb, recurrence, coordinating conjunctions, clips.2. – concerns the deep structure of the text, it’s the temporal and spacial continuity of events. It incloses meaningfull and phonet. relations of the text.3. defines the intention of the textmaker, to built up a cohesion and coherence and achieve defenite communicative purpose. 4. exeptability as well as intentionality has come from a speech act theory and defines as the expectation of the recepient to get a cohesion and coherence text.5. expresses the theme of the text the new and unexpected information for the text comprehender. 6. reflects the facts, which make the text relavent and for the defenite communicative situation.7. reflects the correlation of the text with a definite type of text & the correlation with other texts. Professor Galperin defines the text as a complet speech act: completness, written form, abstract model, delimitatinon into tital and SPU (supra phrasal unities), cohesion, communicative intention. Moskarskaya 1. superphrasal unity- is gram. organized sequence of sent-s, forming a textual unity 2. speech unity macrotext Speaking ab. cohesion of the text, 2 types of the relation in the text: 1. anaphoric (retrospective) 2. cataphoric connector signals of continuation of speech. Blokh:1) monolog – one sequence directon 2) two sequence direction.

Other categories of the text:

1. Category of divisibility: text can be a telegramme and a novel; division into chapters and paragraphs; division into author speech and present speech.

2. Autosemantics of the text: the part of the text is dependent and at the same time

comparatively independent of the content of the whole text and each of its parts

3. Modality of the text: its relation to reality

4. Integrity of the text: uniting of all its parts in order to make it a whole.

5. Completeness: the text should be logically complete.

6. Text as a stretch in the time and space.

Logical connections are concentrated in pragmatics of the text. It means that we are to take into account the situation relations between participants of the communicative act and many other extra linguistic factors.