1Figures of identity.

1. a) Simile- imaginative comparison.

2.Figures of Contrast - formed by intentional combination, by direct juxtaposition (сопоставление) of ideas and incompatible (несовместимый) with one another.

a) Oxymoron is a combinations of two words in which the meanings of two clash, being opposite in sense: low sky-scraper; horribly beautiful; pleasantly ugly face; etc.

Models: adj + noun.; adv + adj

Antithesis (противопоставление противоположностей): Ex. Youth is lovely, age is lonely; Youth is fiery, age is frosty; (Longfellow)

3.Figures of Inequality. - specifying, or clarifying synonyms.

a) Climax (or Gradation).

b) Anti-climax (“back gradation”)

c) Pun (каламбур) is “play upon words”.

d) Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations of two neighbouring words in the utterance. F. e.: to lose her heart or necklace.

Syntax

Ellipsis –absence of one or both principal parts.

Aposiopesis – intentional abstention from continuing the utterance of stops all together.

Nominative sentence

Absence of auxiliary elements.

Asyndeton – is the absence of conjunctions.

Syntactical stylistic devices based on redundancy of language means:

Anaphora (a...,a...)

Epiphora (...b,...b)

Framing (a...a,b...b,c...c)

Chain repetition (“crossing”)

Syntactic tautology – recurrence of the noun in the form of the corresponding personal pronoun (Mrs. Walls, she likes flowers)

Polysyndeton – repetition of conjunctions and in most cases.

Syntactical stylistic devices based on redestribution (unusual arrangement of the components of the utterance):

Inversion – change of word order

Detachment (types: attribute, appositive, adverbial modifier, direct object, prepositional object)

Suspense – placing unimportant information before important one.

Enumeration

Syntactical stylistic devices based on transposition:

Rethorical questions:

Quasi-affirmative sentences (ex. “It’s that too bad?=”That is so bad”)

Quasi-negative sentences (ex. “Did I say a word about the money?” – the implication “ I didn’t say...”)

Quasi-imperative sentences (ex. “Tea. For two. Out here.”(Show) “Here! Quick!”)

Quasi-interrogative sentences (ex. Instead of asking How are you? Where were you born? One may either command Fill in your age and birthplace or explain: Here you are to write down your age and birthplace.)

19.Stylistic Syntax.

The main aim of stylistic syntax’s approach is to find out what sublanguage (подъязык) is involved and what expressive value a syntactical unit (sentence or other utterance) has. 1. Syntactical stylistic devices based on compression (economy):

1.Ellipsis. -absence of one or both principal parts in sentence (the subject, the predicate). Ellipsis is typical of colloquial speech. In the following dialogue two questions are answered elliptically:Eg. -Where’s the man I’m going to marry? -Out of the garden.

Colloquial ellipsis are different. Very often the subject is omitted (pronoun of the first person (I)):: -“Were they interesting books?” -“Don’t know. Haven’t read them.” (Christie)

In careless speech the link-verb to be is dropped habitually:“I love that girl.”

“You what?” (McBain) In fiction, elliptical sentences are used to reproduce the direct speech of characters, or to impact (усилить) brevity, a quick tempo and emotional tension to the author’s narrative. “He became one of the prominent men of the House. Spoke clearly, sensibly, and modestly, and was never too long. ” (Collins). Elliptical sentences are very frequent in papers or handbooks on technology, encyclopedic dictionaries and reference books of the “Who’s Who” type, in telegraphic messages. The reason is clear: ^{every word is paid for. 2.Absence of auxiliary elements. have, do, be, will, be are very often dropped in informal oral communications. “I been waiting here all morning…” (Robbins); “You fell like telling me?” (Salinger); “That be enough?” (Marcus)} 3.Asyndeton is the absence of conjunctions. Asyndetic connection b/w words, clauses and sentenced is based upon the lexical meanings of the parts connected. Absence of connecting elements imparts dynamic force to the text. The facts show that in colloquial speech the most frequent are conditional and temporal asyndentic adverbial clauses: “You want anything, you pay for it.” (Osborne), “You get older; you want to feel that you accomplished something.” (Miller) 4. apokoinu construction – irregular oral speech, presents a blend of 2 clauses into 1; to emphasize the careless or uneducated character.( I’m first one saw her = I’m first one who saw her) 5. Aposiopesis denotes a sudden break of narration. The listener should to complete the sentence in his mind. Ex: Well, I never! ;“You heard what the guy said: get out or else.” (Gardner) 6.Nominative sentences’ function is a mere (простой ) statement of the existence of an object, a phenomenon: “London. Fog everywhere. Implacable November weather.” The stylistic effect produced by a nominative sentence is predetermined (предрешается) by the sense of the words of which they consist. Nominative sentences are wildly used in stage directions.2. Syntactical stylistic devices based on redundancy of language means: 1. Repetition is synt. exp-ve means which shows speaker’s strong emotions. It is a stylistic device which aims to attract readers attention to a certain idea. Adjacent sentences are often identical or analogous by their syntactical (or morphological) structures. Assimilation or even identity of two or more neighboring sentences is called parallelism (“parallel constructions”). parallelism is a variety of repetition, but not a repetition of lexically identical sentences, only a repetition of syntactical constructions: John kept silent; Mary was thinking. Parallelism contributes to rhythmic and melodic unification of neighboring sentences. Purely syntactical repetitions should be distinguished from lexico-syntactical repetitions: Anaphora (a …, a…). the purpose -strengthening the element: better for common sense, better for him, better for me. Epiphora (… b, …b). regularizes the rhythm of the text and makes prose resemble poetry. Framing (a…a,b…b,c…c). “Money is what he’s after, money!” (Galore) 2.Anadiplosis (…a, a…): I was happy; happy at least in my oun way. 3.Chain repetition (…a, a…b, b…c, c…): a linking element is repeated several times. 4.Chiasmus (“crossing”) -two syntactical constructions (sentence or phrases) are parallel, but their members (words) change places, their syntactical positions. “I love my Love and my Love loves me!” (Coleridge) Certain puns are based upon chiasmus: Soldiers face powder, girls powder faces. 5. Syntactical tautology (prolepsis). -repetition of the noun in the form of the corresponding personal pronoun. The stylistic function is topicalization of the “theme”. “Miss Tillie Webster, she slept forty days and nights without waking up.” (O. Henry) (the speech of uneducated people): 6.Tautology in appended statements. The term “appended statement” -repetition of the sentence in a very general manner. It consists of two elements: the pronominal subject and an auxiliary or modal verb representing the predicate of the main sentence. Appended statements are always intensifies.“I wished my hands and face before I come, I did… I know what the like of you are, I do.” (Shaw) 7. Polysyndeton - repetition of conjunctions and or connecting words. associations with the style of the Bible, in which nearly every sentence, or at least almost every paragraph begins with and. Excessive use of the conjunction and often betrays (передаёт) the poverty (бедность) of the speaker’s syntax, showing the primitiveness of the character. 3. Syntactical stylistic devices based on redistribution (unusual arrangement of the components of the utterance). 1. Inversion (change of word-order): “grammatical inversion” and “stylistic inversion”. Grammatical inversion brings about a cardinal change in the grammatical meaning of the syntactical structure: You are here. Are you here? Stylistic inversion does not change the grammatical essence of the sentence: it consists in an unusual arrangement of words for the purpose of making one of them more conspicuous (заметный), more important, more emphatic. They slid down and Down they slid 2.Detachment. –when secondary members of the S. Acquire independent stress and intonation. Effect – is strengthening. detached parts are separated by punctuation marks (mostly by commas or dashes). “How could John, with his heart of gold, leave his family?”. any secondary part may be detached Attribute: “Very small and child-like, he never looked more than fourteen.” Appositive: “Brave boy, he saved my life and shall not regret it.” Adverbial modifier: Direct object: “Talent, Mr. Micawber has, capital, Mr. Micawber has not.” Prepositional object: “It was indeed, to Forsyte eyes, an odd house.” 3.Enumeration is homogeneous from semantic point of view. 4. Suspense is placing unimportant information before important one. It is often accompanied by climax and often used in oratory style. 5. climax – gradation (I’m sorry, I’m so sorry, I’m so extremely sorry) 6. anti-climax (backgradation) – second element weaker.(This was appaling and soon forgotten) 7. antithesis – is based on relative opposition. Morphological (underpaid and overworked), proper-antonyms (don’t use big words, they mean so little), developed – sentences. 4. Syntactical stylistic devices based on transposition:1. Rhetorical questions.Quasi-affirmative sentence - rhetorical question, with a negative predicate. The implication of such a negative question is an affirmative statement: “Isn’t that too bad?” = “That is so bad” Quasi-negative - rhetorical questions with affirmative (утвердительный) predicates: “Did I say a word about the money?” (Shaw) The implication is: “I did not say…” Quasi-imperative express inducement (order or request) without the imperative form of the verb. Some of them do not name the required action, but only mention the object or a qualification of a self-evident action: “Tea. For two. Out here.” (Show) “Here! Quick!” Quasi-interrogative - imperative or declarative. Instead of asking How are you? Where were you born? one may either command Fill in your age and birthplace or explain: Here you are to write down your age and birthplace. 2.Represented speech

Stylistic Morphology

General morphology treat morphemes and grammatical meanings expressed by them in lg. in general without regard to their stylistic value. Stylistic morphology is interested in gram. Forms and gram. Meanings explicitly or implicitly comparing them with the neutral ones, common to all sublang.-s. It is interested in the stylistic potencials of specific gram. forms and categories.

Acc. to Screbnev: 2 general trends of styl-c significance:

1. synonymy (paradigmatic equivalence or interchangeability of different morphemes (dog-s, cow-s – ox-en phenomen-a, etc.);

2.variability of use of morphological “categorical forms” or of members of the opposition that constitute the grammatical category – “tense”, “person”, etc. (He is coming next Monday; Well, are we feeling better today?)

Word-building expressive means:every particular affix has its own connotational potential. Eg. – ish – is a neutral morheme.If added to N. Forms ajective with negative connotation (boyish,girlish). If added to a compound word the negative evaluation becomes more intensive (honey-moonish). If added to numerals it demonstrates the uncertainty (fourty- fourtish).

Negative evaluation – suffixes: ard(coward), ster(ganster),aster(poetaster),eer(black-marketeer),monger,do(kiddo).

Diminitive suffexes: kin(lambkin), dy (daddy), ie(sweetie), ette(kitchenette),roo (bodyroo).

The gram. meaning of plurality can be expressed by a variety of dif. morphemes: -s[s]-books, [z] boys,[iz]boxes, en-oxen, children, -a-data, i[ai]- stimuli, ae[i:]formulae.

The use of ungram. Forms: we/you/they was, he don’t, says I, dunno-don’t know,

Interchangeability of prepositions and forms of participle II and Subjunctive I may reveal national pecularities of Eng.: at the corner (Br. Eng,) – on the corner(Am.eng.), Whom you are talking to? Who are you talking to?

Gram. Transposition is unusual usage of dif. parts of speech with violation нарушение of traditional valency. The speaker uses it to express his emotions and attitude.

Noun. The names of animals or imagery creatures used with regard to people in colloquial speech gain emotionally colored expressive communication: 1) tender, affectionate – angel, lamb; 2) ironical – pig, donkey, monkey; 3) highly negative: shark, snake, bear, ass, ape, devil. You are lazy dog!

Number: sing. Instead of pl.: reading books (when there is only1 book), How dare he talk like that to ladies?; pl. Instead of sing.: That is what the student is supposed to know.

Synechdochy (the simplest type of metonymy) –using the name of the part instead of the whole and visa versa– hands wanted, a hundred head of cattle.(for the whole, whole for the part, spicies for genus, genus for spicies, name of material for the thing).

Only animate nouns have category of person. Personification – attributing human properties to lifeless objects.Ship – she, countries – she; abstract nouns can be transformed into class of nouns naming individuals: you are horror, , you are a horrid girl.

Depersonification – treaty a person as a thing. (you are little thing).

Case: is a typical feature of proper names. When the possessive case is used with common nouns it becomes the mark of personification. My country’s laws. Substitution – adjectives into people names (Listen my sweet),Adjectives describing people qualities (the rich, the hurt, the sick). Gender: Eng. Lang, is male oriented.We can see that importance of women diminished. (He shares information, she- gossips, He is analytical, she uses femenine logic.) master – mistress.

Article – the indefinite article with a family name in sing. Points to representation of some family in bad or good reputation.(A Forsyte is not an uncommon animal)., with the family names in sing may be charged with negative connotation and diminish the person’s status (A Mr. Smith).

Definite article with family – to denote the whole family – the Simpsons. Metaphoric antonomasia – use of name of historical personage.(Don Juan.)

Absence of article – (newspapers,telegrammes, reference books, directions)

Pronoun. One is expressed the idea of indefinite person.we, you , they, a man, a chap, a fellow, a body – the idea of impersonality.We- as you in the speech of doctors. We instead of I – (we, Charles II); we instead of you ironically used in the speech f uneducated people; The frequent repetition of I – idea of ego-mania. The use of archaic forms of pronoun (thou, thee, thy, thine) creates a historic effect.that may point to excitement of the speaker (that wonderful day!) .

Verb. Ungram. Present and past forms can be used to show illiteracy, and poor educational background. Present tenses for plans in the future (I’m meeting him.) continuous forms can show the emotional states of the speaker - persistance(She, is never coming here again. I tell you that.), irritation, surprise, impatience. Auxiliary verbs do and did are emphatic devices in colloquial speech.(I do know him).

Adjective.the category of comparison is of great stylistic value. Superlative degree – large degree of some quality (the sweetest baby). Non-standard norms- colours (greener, pinker), beautifulest. For humorous effect – He is the most married man I’ve ever met.

Adverb. Now- indicates the present moment, then- shows the sequence of events. “now, before, after ” is in amer. press after September11.