4.4 Transformational analysis

The transformational grammar divides all the sentences into kernel sentences and their transforms. The kernel sentences are the basic elementary sentences of the language from which all else is made. The kernel sentences are simple declarative unextended sentences. The transforms are syntactic constructions (sentences and phrases) derived from the kernel sentences, retaining their grammatical, rela­tions, but having an additional grammatical meaning of their own. According to the additional grammatical meaning the transforms may be affirmative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory, negative, passive, compound, complex, etc.

Transforms are derived from kernel sentences by certain transformational rules. These are:

1) The transformation of kernel sentences into other simple sentences (S®S);

2) The transformation of simple sentences into NP—nominalization (S®NP);

3) The transformations of two or more simple sentences into a complex or compound sentence (S₁+S₂+S₃).

Transformations in simple sentences imply the transfor­mation of: 1) affirmation, 2) negation, 3) general question, 4) tag-question, 5) special question, 6) exclamation, 7) com­mand or request, 8) the passive, 9) preposition introduction, 10) permutation (The pencil is here®Here is the pencil), 11) introducer (The man appeared in the corridor®There appeared a man in the corridor), 12) reduction (Do you like it?®Like it?).

The transformational procedures in simple sentences are carried out by means of:

1) expansion of VP or NP (His dreams came true®All his dreams came true at last);

2) permutation (change of word-order) (He is here®Is. he here?);

3) introduction of functional words (He came®Did he come?).

4) use of introducers (there, it) (The boy is here®There is a boy here);

5) omission of the elements of the sentence (Do you like it®Like it?);

6) change of the intonation contour (He was there®Was he there?).

The transformation of nominalization which converts the kernel sentence into a noun-phrase retaining the same semantic relations implies the following procedures:

1) deletion of the verb (The boy has a pencil®The boy with a pencil);

2) the introduction of prepositions (The man is wise®The wisdom of the man);

3) permutation of NP₁ and NP₂ (The bowl is for sugar®A sugar bowl);

4) the derivation of the corresponding N from V (The bird sang®The song of the bird);

5) transformation of V-finite into V_ing and V_to (We rely on it that he wilt come® We rely on him to come; we rely on his coming).

Tasks

1. What is the principal difference between the transformation of nominalization and transformations in simple sentences?

2. Define the main objectives of the labeling and bracketing procedures.

3. What are the pluses and minuses of the IC analysis?

4. What types of diagrams are used in the IC analysis?

5. Which diagram do you find most relevant/valid? Explain your choice.

6. What are the merits of distributional analysis?

7. How do the positional, optional and stylistic variants differ within the framework of oppositional analysis?

8. Describe the main aspects of the descriptive approach.

9. Describe the main aspects of the prescriptive approach.

10. Give your arguments for (or against) universal grammar. Provide your own examples.

11. Give your own definition of a grammatical model and explain its main aspects.

12. Work out a set of principles (a scheme, a grid, etc.) to help differentiate between different types of grammar.

13. Is it justified to include semantics and phonology in the scope of grammatical analysis? Provide your arguments.

14. Account for the use of the following terms in the definition of the grammatical model: model, patterned sounds, predictable meanings, infinite use, finite means.

Part 3

Basics of Sentence Parsing

Sentence parsing is done through a number of steps that help students to understand the structure of the sentence and the bonds between its structural and semantic parts as well the functions of different sentence members.

In order to represent the structure of the sentence graphically students are required to draw the scheme that will reflect the organisation of the analysed sentence adequately.

The steps to take are the following:

1. identify the main and secondary parts of the sentences;

2. draw the scheme of the sentence;

3. identify the types of relations between sentence parts;

4. speak on the characteristics of the parts of speech and their functions in the sentences.

1. He looked around the room for hidden microphones and cameras, but the place was so simple and modest he couldn’t imagine anyone trying to eavesdrop. /Grisham J. The Chamber. – NY: Dell, 1995. – P. 106/

2. In fact, he knew that he had thirteen days to go, and he accused me of trying to give him medication so he wouldn’t be any trouble when his time came. /Grisham J. The Chamber. – NY: Dell, 1995. – P. 608/

3. At the bottom of the stairway was a door which opened when he turned the knob, and John found himself in a narrow hall that ran the width of the church (Sipherd R. Dance of the Scarecrows. – Reader’s Digest Association: NY, 1996. – P.403)

4. The message on his answering machine was from a gallery-owner friend in New Haven, who was planning a show of John’s work in December and he hoped that John could make a quick trip to new Haven next Wednesday so that they could discuss the hanging of the paintings (Sipherd R. Dance of the Scarecrows. – Reader’s Digest Association: NY, 1996. – P.396)

Additional:

Study questions

1. Give the traditional terms for the grammatical categories of words in the following sentence

(e.g. boy = noun):

The boy rubbed the magic lamp and suddenly a genie appeared beside him.

2. What prescriptive rules for the ’proper’ use of English are not obeyed the following sentences?

(a) That's the girl I gave my roller skates to.

(b) He wanted to simply borrow your car for an hour.

3. Most modern attempts to characterize the structure of sentences are based on a particular approach. What is this approach called, and what general principle is adhered to in such an approach?

4. Present a labeled and bracketed analysis of this sentence:

The policeman chased a robber.

5. Given the following English translations of some other Gaelic words, can you translate the sentences which follow: mor ('big'), beag, ('small'), bhuail (' hit '), duine ('man').

(a) Bhuail an gille beag an cu dubh.

(b) Chunnaic an cu an duine mor.

6. A It has been claimed (Palmer, 1983) that English does not have a future tense form of the verb, although it does have many ways of referring to future time. Consider the following sentences and decide what kind of time-reference is involved. Then, consider whether the labels 'past', ’present’ and 'future' are appropriate for describing the verb forms used.

Water will freeze at zero degrees Centigrade.

I'll leave if you want.

If Bucky phones, tell him I am asleep.

I wish I had a million dollars.

Your plane leaves at noon tomorrow.

We 're going to visit Cairo next year.

She said Jim was leaving next week.

Shall we dance?

7. The types of grammatical descriptions we have considered would simply treat the following examples as English sentences and present a description of their form and structural organization. Is this what everyone considers as 'grammar'? Might there be more to say about sentences like these?

I don’t know nothing about that

You wasn't here when he come looking for you

There's hundreds of students in there

Do you wanna go?Are you gonna go?

8. Can you produce a single diagram, following the format of an immediate constituent analysis, which would incorporate all the constituents of the following sentences? What problems have to be resolved in an exercise like this?

A friend borrowed my car in June. They arrived yesterday.

My parents bought two tickets at Christmas. Suzy left.

THEME 3 LECTURE 5

BASIC GRAMMATICAL ASSUMPTIONS

AND NOTIONS

OUTLINE

1. The notion of grammatical opposition

2. Transposition of grammatical forms

3. Polysemy, homonymy and synonymy in grammar

3.1 Polysemy

3.2 Homonymy

3.3 Synonymy

Key terms: opposition, grammatical opposition, transposition, polysemy, homonymy, synonymy in grammar

Recommended Reading

1. Alova N., Starikova E. Seminars in Theoretical Grammar. – Ryiv: Vyscha Sckola, 1972

2. Huddleston, R. English Grammar: An Outline. – Cambridge: CUP, 1988

3. Morokhovskay E.J. Fundamentals of Theoretical English Grammar. – Kiev: Vysca Skola,1992

Study questions

Project

English and globalization