Причастие настоящего времени (Participle I)

Причастие I (причастие настоящего времени), образованное при помощи окончания -ing, имеет активную и страдательную формы:

	несовершенный: вид	совершенный вид
Active активная	asking	having asked
Passive страдательная	being asked	having been asked

Причастие 1 употребляется в функции:

1. Определения:

The man sitting at the table is our teacher. — Человек, сидящий за столом — наш учитель.

The houses being built in our town are not very high. — Дома, строящиеся в нашем городе, невысоки.

2. Обстоятельства:

Going home I met an old friend. — Идя домой, я встретил старого друга.

Having finished work I went home. — Закончив работу, я пошел домой.

Причастие II (причастие прошедшего времени) всегда пассивно. Образуется оно прибавлением суффикса -ed к основе правильного глагола или путем чередования звуков в корне неправильного глагола.

Причастие II употребляется в функции:

1. Определения

The book translated from English is very interest­ing. — Книга, переведенная с английского языка, интересная.

2. Обстоятельства (причины и времени)

Given the task he began to work. — Когда ему

дали задание, он начал работать.

If mailed, a bank transfer is known as a mail transfer. — Если банковский перевод отправляет­ся почтой, он известен как почтовый перевод.

Если перед причастием прошедшего времени в функции обстоятельства стоят союзы if, when, то оно переводится на русский язык обстоятельственным придаточным предложением.

• Если причастия настоящего и прошедшего времени стоят перед определяемыми существительными, то они, утрачивая в значительной степени свое отглагольное значение, выражают качество и приближаются по значению к обычному прилагательному:

a collecting bank — инкассирующий банк sold goods — проданный товар

• Если причастия настоящего и прошедшего времени стоят после определяемого существительного, то они не выражают качества, а имеют лишь глагольное значение. Такие причастия могут быть заменены определительным придаточным предложением.

all parties concerned — все заинтересованные стороны (все стороны, которых это касается)

instructions received — полученные инструкции (инструкции, которые были получены)

TOPICS

MY INSTITUTE

Melitopol Institute of Public and Municipal Administration of “Classic Private University” was opened in 1997 so it is one of the modern institutes in Ukraine and it is on the stage of its development.

“Classical Private University” was founded in 1991 as Zaporizhja Institute of State and Municipal Government and on the twenty-first of November, 2000 it was granted the status of University. In 2007 it was granted the status of the first in Ukraine Classical University as many other famous European Universities. And in the nearest future it is going to have Medical and other specialties important and necessary for our country.

It occupies a modern five-storeyed building in Zhukovskiy Street in Zaporizhya and has one of the largest swimming pools where famous sportsmen train for their future competitions. The number of students at our University is very great. It has several departments in other cities and towns of Ukraine.

I live in Melitopol, so I study at Melitopol department of this University.

There are two faculties at our Institute. They are the economic faculty, the management and jurisprudence faculty. Every faculty is headed by a dean. So these faculties have their own dean’s offices. The Institute trains future economists, accountants, auditors, financiers, managers, lawyers and other specialists for the economical and social development of our country.

The students study many subjects: History, Mathematics, Economy, English, Ecology, Computing and so on… The lectures are delivered by professors and experienced teachers. The academic year starts on the first of September and lasts to the end of May. It is divided into two terms. In January and in June the students take examinations. We have a library and a reading-room to prepare for the exams and tests. The students study five years at the daytime department and correspondence students study six years.

The students spend their free time taking part in students` disco club meetings and holiday parties.

After graduating from the Institute we’ll work in different parts of our country and abroad.

MY FUTURE PROFESSION

I am a student of the Melitopol Institute of Public and Municipal Administration of “Classic Private University”. I study at the correspondence department of the management faculty of this Institute. In the nearest future I’ll become a manager. This profession is of great importance now. Ukraine’s economy is in the process of its assertion as that of independent state. It needs well-educated, knowing specialists at any field. After graduating from the Institute I will be able to work as an executive of the administrative department, executive of the financial department and state employee. I study many subjects at the Institute to be an efficient specialist.

Management is a variety of specific activities. It is a function of planning, organizing, coordinating, directing and controlling. The amount of responsibility of any individual in a company depends on the position that he or she occupies in its hierarchy.

Managing is a responsible and hard job. As to the manager I would say he makes a lot of important decisions. In decision-making there is always some uncertainty and risk. He must be very competent because it’s evident that making careful decisions is the basis of good management.

So at the Institute I must learn to know how to operate at any of these positions.

DYNAMIC OF PROGRESS OF UKRAINE`S ECONOMY

In 1991-1995, two interrelated progresses were characteristic of Ukraine’s economy, namely its assertion as that of independent state, and its transformation from planned-centralized to market-controlled.

Historically the following two factors determined the development of Ukrainian lands: firstly, the presence of fertile chernozem soils, and, secondly, remarkably convenient geographical location on the cross-roads of international trade routes.

The export-import structure was also characteristic of the state formation existing in the current Ukrainian territories. At the same time the development of plow farming, ferrous metallurgy and crafts led to an upsurge of such contacts between Russia–Ukraine and other countries. Ukraine turned into Europe’s “granary”. The Ukrainian agrarian ‘gubernias’ began to transform as agrarian-industrial regions only in the second half of the 19-th century. The Donetsk Coal Basin (Donbas) and the Kryvyi Rih Iron Ore Basin became Russia’s leading industrial venues.

Present-day independent Ukraine has considerable potential to a quickly develop of its economy – and this is explained not only by favourable national conditions, but also by the convenient geographical position in terms of international trade exchanges.

In Donbas the coal deposits are estimated at 2,000,000,000 tons. Some 4.2 billion ton of hydrogenous (brown) coal are to be found in the Dnieper Basin.

Ukraine’s iron and magnese ore deposits are considered the richest in the world – primary in the Kryvyi Rih Basin (up to 62% of pure iron) and the Nikopol Basin. There are also considerable reserves of titanium, nickel, chrome, mercury and other rare metals.

The non-ore deposits are quite variegated (for instance, sulphur, phosphorites, potash salts, refractors, flux, granite, marble, porcelain, clay, chalk etc.)

Still, the oil and gas deposits of Sub-Carpathia and Left-Bank Ukraine cannot satisfy their own needs in these energy resources.

Ukraine’s labour pool amounts to 29.6 million persons, of whom 22.4 million are employed in the national economy, including 6.4 million in the industries, 4.6 million in agriculture and forestry, 1.7 million in construction, 1.6 million in transport and communications, and 6.6 million in the communal sphere, medicine and public education.

THE ECONOMY OF GREAT BRITAIN

The United Kingdom has a developed mixed private- and public-enterprise economy and ranks among the top industrial countries in growth rates, productivity, and competitiveness. The gross national product (GNP) is growing faster than the population.

The state sector was reduced during the 1980s and 1990s owing to policies of privatization, or denationalization, of publicly owned corporations.

Nowadays, government policies include the close monitoring and frequent adjustment of interest rates; a gradual reduction in the level of direct personal taxation; a reduction in the levels of power and influence of national trade unions in national labour negotiations; the encouragement of wider home ownership and of individuals` share holdings in companies. The government controls the production of coal, steel, and ships, it also runs certain utilities, the railways, and most civil aviation.

Manufacturing industries account for one-fifth of the GNP. Major manufactures include motor vehicles, aerospace equipment, electronic data-processing and telecommunication equipment, metal goods, precision instruments, petrochemicals, and other chemicals.

Agriculture accounts for less than 2 percent of the GNP and employs some 2 percent of the work force. Farming is highly mechanized, though farms are not large, and is dominated by the raising of sheep and cattle. Chief crops include barely, wheat, sugar beets, and potatoes.

The mineral industry accounts for approximately 6 percent of the GNP but employs less than 1 percent of the work force. Production from oil fields in the North Sea has allowed the United Kingdom to become virtually self-sufficient in petroleum. The United Kingdom’s coal industry, despite its steady decline since the early 1950s, remains one of the largest and most technologically advanced in Europe.

Chief imports of Great Britain are: metallic ores, except iron ore, food. Chief exports are: china, automobiles and other vehicles, wooden goods, steel, electrical and mechanical machinery, tractors, scientific instruments, chemicals, petroleum.

The country is a major world financial and banking centre.

Just under half of the total population is in the labour force. The highest proportion of employees (more than two-thirds) are in the service sectors, financial services and distribution. Manufacturing, although it has declined, employs more than one-fifth of all workers.

THE ECONOMY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

The United States is among the leading industrial and agricultural nations of the Globe. It is the world's greatest economic power in terms of gross national product (GNP) and is among the greatest powers in terms of GNP per capita. The nation's wealth is partly a reflection of its rich natural resources and advanced agriculture, but the main factor, nevertheless, is its highly developed industry. International trade plays an important part in the U.S. economy, too.

The U.S. government plays only a small direct part in economic activity, being restricted to few agencies. Enterprises that are often in public hands in other countries, such as airlines and telephone systems, are run privately in the United States.

Farming is a field in which the government strongly regulates private economic activity. It endeavours to support farm incomes through payments to farmers, controls on output, price supports, and the provision of storage and marketing facilities.

Nearly all of the federal government's revenues come from taxes. By far the most important source of tax revenue is the personal income tax. Another major source of revenue is social insurance taxes and contributions.

The United States is the world's second largest petroleum-producing nation. The major producing fields are in Alaska, California, The Gulf of Mexico, Louisiana, and Oklahoma. Important reserves of natural gas are found in most of these same areas.

The agricultural sector of the USA produces nearly one-half of the world's corn (maize) and more than one-tenth of its wheat. Soybeans, cotton, barley, grain sorghum, rice, and tobacco are between the main crops as well. Fishing, forestry, and livestock are also substantial, nearly one-fifth of the world's beef, pork, mutton, and lamb are produced in the USA.

One of the most important sectors in terms of value added is the manufacture of transportation equipment, including motor vehicles, aircraft, and space equipment. Other important sectors include machinery, food products, and chemicals.

In the second half of the 20th century, services has grown faster than any other sector of the U.S. economy. Services are now second only to manufacturing in contribution to the GNP. The most important components are health and business services.

Exports, at only 7.6 percent of gross domestic product in 1994, show the economy of the USA to be relatively self-sufficient and comparatively unaffected by global economic trends. Its exports present more than 10 percent of the world total. Major exports and imports include machinery and transportation equipment, chemicals, mineral fuel. Chief exports are also aircraft, computers, tobacco and wheat. The USA receives in turn paper, clothing, footwear, and food (meat, fish, coffee, tea, and bananas).

The United States takes part in the economy of the rest of the world not only as a trading power but also as a source of investment capital. The USA has penetrated deeply into the Canadian economy where American multinational corporations have large investments. Mining and smelting, petroleum and natural gas, and much of the manufacturing enterprise is dominated by American firms. Direct investment abroad by U.S. firms is a dominant factor in the economies of many Latin-American countries and is also important in Europe and in Asia.

III-й КУРС

1-й СЕМЕСТР

THE ROLE OF MANAGEMENT

An early management scholar, Mary Parker Follet, defined management as “the art of getting things done through people”. Once it meant that managers were called bosses, and their job was to tell people what to do and watch over them to be sure they really did it. Many managers still behave like that, though today management is changing from that kind of behaviour. Managers are being educated to guide and coach employees rather than to boss them around. Modern managers emphasize teamwork and co-operation rather than discipline and giving orders. Managers in some high-tech and progressive firms dress more casually, are more friendly, and generally treat employees as partners rather than unruly workers.

Therefore management is experiencing revolution. It means that managerial careers demand a new kind of person. That person is a skilled communicator as well as planner, co-ordinator, organizer and supervisor. Many managers today believe that they are part of a team and enjoy the new responsibility and flexibility that comes with more open and casual management systems.

As was stated above, management could be called the art of getting things done through people and other resources. Managers give direction to their organizations, provide leadership and decide how to use organizational resources to accomplish goals. These definitions give you some feeling for what managers do. The definition of management used in this text is the following: management is the process used to accomplish organizational goals through planning, organizing, directing and controlling people and other organizational resources. This definition spells out the four key functions of management: 1) planning, 2) organizing, 3) directing, 4) controlling.

1. Planning includes anticipating future trends and determining the best strategies and tactics to achieve organisational goals and objectives.

2. Organizing includes designing the organization structure, attracting people to the organization (staffing), and creating conditions and systems that ensure that everyone and everything works together to achieve the goals and objectives of the organization.

3. Directing is guiding and motivating others to work effectively to achieve goals and objectives of the organization.

4. Controlling is checking to determine whether or not the organization is progressing towards its goals and objectives, and taking corrective action if it is not.

You must be aware that management is much more complex than doing a few tasks. A good manager must know about the industry the firm is in, all technological, political, competitive and social factors which influence that industry. He or she must understand the kind of people who work in the industry and what motivates them. And finally, a manager must be skilled in performing various managerial tasks, especially technical tasks, human relations tasks and conceptual tasks.

Завдання 1. Виберіть правильну відповідь на запитання:

1. What was the meaning of manager’s job in the middle of the previous century?

a) to guide employees b) to watch over them c) to make friends with them

2. What do modern managers emphasize in their practice?

a) co-operation b) discipline c) keeping to rules

3. How do modern managers treat their employees?

a) as relatives b)as partners c) as unruly workers

4. What is the main aim of managerial work?

a) to make money b) to boss employees around c) to achieve organisational goals

5. What is the first key managerial function?

a) planning b) directing c) controlling

6. How do managers call the function of motivating and guiding employees?

a) organizing b) controlling c) directing

7. How do managers call the function of designing the organizational structure?

a) controlling b) supervising c) organizing

Завдання 2. Підберіть правильні слова до пропусків у реченнях:

1. The first thing that a manager must do is to … organizational activities.

2. A manager must be able to achieve organizational goals through … and other … .

3. Modern managers try to guide … rather than to …. .

4. More open and casual managerial system brings also new … and … .

5. The four main managerial functions are: … , … , … and … .

6. One of the functions of planning is to determine the best … and … to reach organizational goals and objectives.

7. If the organization doesn’t work well a manager must take … actions.

8. A manager must think about many things? So his/her job is very … .

MANAGEMENT AND MANAGERS

Management is the process of achieving organizational goals through engaging in the four major functions of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. Although these four functions form the basis of the managerial process, several other elements contribute to an understanding of how managers actually operate. For instance, work methods and managerial roles, as well as work agendas, feed into the management functions aimed at performance. A manager's knowledge base and management skills also are important factors in reaching targeted performance.

Mintzberg's famous study of top managers found that their work methods were characterised by an unrelenting pace, brevity, variety, fragmentation, and heavy use of verbal contacts and networks. In order to make sense of the voluminous data that he collected while observing the managers, Mintzberg isolated three major categories of roles: interpersonal, informational, and decisional. Within these categories he identified 10 specific roles: figurehead, leader, liaison, monitor, disseminator, spokesperson, entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, and negotiator. To a large extent, these work methods and roles are also characteristic of managers at other levels of organizations.

On the basis of his research on general managers, Kotter found that managers channel their various efforts through the use of work agendas, which are loosely connected sets of tentative goals and tasks that a manager is attempting to accomplish. Work agendas usually develop from the demands, constraints, and choices associated with a manager's job. As a result, work agendas tend to reflect, at least to some extent, the personal preferences and career objectives of managers.

For managers to develop work agendas, act out roles, and engage in planning, organizing, leading, and controlling, they also need a knowledge base and key management skills. The key management skills fit into three categories: technical, human, and conceptual. These skills, as well as the other elements in the management process, impact performance. Performance is made up of two important dimensions: effectiveness and efficiency. Effectiveness is the ability to choose appropriate goals and achieve them, while efficiency is the ability to make the best use of available resources in the process of achieving goals.

Managerial jobs differ according to hierarchical level (a vertical dimension) and responsibility areas (a horizontal dimension). Managerial jobs generally are divided into three hierarchical levels: first-line, middle, and top. Managers at these levels vary in the emphasis they place on planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. They also differ in the importance that they place on the key management skills and in the degree to which they use the different types of managerial roles. Although managers at all levels rate the entrepreneurial role as highly important, the way that they use this role to encourage innovation depends on their hierarchical level, as follows: idea champion (first-line), sponsor (middle), and orchestrator (top). In contrast, horizontal managerial job differences focus on responsibility areas and involve three major types of managers: functional, general, and project. The limited evidence suggests that managers who have different responsibility areas also vary in the degree to which they engage in the four functions of management, as well as in the importance that they attach to the key skills. Overall, the primary implication of these findings is that managers need to be prepared to tailor somewhat the use of the management functions and skills to meet the particular requirements of the job.

Studies of CEOs (Chief Executive Officer) provide clues about what preparation is necessary to be an effective manager. The consensus is that it takes a combination of education and experience. In the educational arena, CEOs for the most part are college graduates, tend to have a graduate degree, and are likely to have participated in formal training and educational programs sponsored or supported by their organization; On the experience Side, they typically have held some type of job in high school or college, been in at least one officer position in a campus organization, and worked for two or fewer companies other than one they lead. In addition, they tend to put on in long hours.

According to several recent informal surveys, managerial work in the future is particularly likely to be affected by the growing intemationalisation of business, the increasing use of sophisticated information technology to facilitate managerial work, and the expanding public concern with managerial ethics.

INDUSTRIAL AND BUSINESS MANAGEMENT FORMS OF BUSINESS UNDERTAKINGS

The business undertakings in Britain and in USA can be either private, or co-operative, or public (government services, municipal enterprises, public corporations).

Private enterprises are the most numerous. The types of private enterprises are best known as following:

1. Joint-Stock (Limited and Limited by Shares);

2. Companies Partnerships (General Guaranted and Limited Guaranted);

3. Sole Traders.

The Joint-Stock Company is the most usual type of enterprise and has developed out of the need for further capital. The liability of the members of the company is limited either to the face value of the shares (companies limited shares) or exceptionally to an amount agreed upon (companies limited by guarantee).

Companies limited by shares form the vast majority. The capital of such a company (also called joint stock) is divided into a number of shares which are distributed among the shareholders. Their liability ceases after they have fully paid the shares in their possession.)

If the shares are offered for sale to the public at large, the company is a public company. The number of the shareholders is not limited, but the founding members must not to be fewer than seven. The shares are freely transferable to other persons without the consent of the directors of the company.

If the offer of the shares to the public is prohibited, and the transference of the shares to third persons is either not allowed at all or only with the directors' consent, the company is a private company. Private companies are often family companies, i.e. all the shares are in the hands of the members of one family.

The liability must be expressed in the name of the company. The name of a public limited company contains, as a rule, the abbreviation plc. (e.g. ICI plc). The name of a private limited company is usually followed by (lie word Limited (Ltd.) . The companies must be registered, or, as the Americans say, incorporated (Inc.) .

The shareholders of the company meet at annual general meetings where the Board of Directors render account of the company's activities and a new Board is elected.

The principal director is called Chairman. Furthermore, there is usually a Managing Director. A Manager stands at the head of a department (e.g. Sales Manager, Staff Manager etc.), or of a branch office or factory belonging to the company. A General Manager has several managers to assist him. He receives instructions from the Managing Director.

A company can obtain not only by issuing shares, but also by borrowing money against debentures. Debentures are securities acknowledging the company's indebtedness and bearing a fixed interest. But whereas the shareholders are owners of the company, the debenture holders are creditors to the company. From the point of view of yield, debentures stand before all types of shares, .i.e. the shareholders may be paid their dividends only after the debenture holders have been fully satisfied. If the company has made no profits, the interest on the debentures must be paid out off its capital.

Debentures issued by the government or by municipal authorities are called bonds. Bonds are securities on which interest is paid at a fixed rate. They are repaid at face value when due. Government and municipal bonds and stocks bearing a safe interest are called Gilt-edged securities or "gilts".

Shares, stock, bonds and debentures are sold and bought on stock exchanges.

A Partnership is an association of 2 to 20 persons who join their capital and skill for the purpose of business.

In a general partnership each partner takes an active part in ,the management of the business and acts as agent of the others. Each of them is liable for any debts incurred by the partnership business with all his private property.

If the partnership consists of one or more general partners and of one or more limited partners, it is a limited partnership. In this case, the limited partners put only a fixed amount of capital in the partnership business and their liability for any debts of the firm is limited to that amount, but such partners may take no active part in the conduct of the business. The partnership business is styled as follows: J. Smith & Sons, or J. Smith & Co.

Partnerships are seldom to be found among manufacturers or merchants but rather among those who give advice, such as solicitors, auditors, architects, etc.

A Sole Trader is the only owner of the business undertaking. He carries on the trade with his own capital on his own account. In the case of failure he is liable for his debts with all his property, which can be seized by his creditors. The capital of sole traders is limited and therefore they are rarely met with in foreign trade.

Завдання 1. Підберіть в тексті правильну відповідь на запитання:

1. What are the types of private enterprises?

2. What is the joint-stock company?

3. When is the company called the public company?

4. What do the abbreviations “plc.” and “Ltd.” mean?

5. How will you explain the word “debentures”?

6. What is partnership?

7. Where are partnerships usually to be found?

8. What is the difference between a partnership and a sole trader?

Завдання 2. Підберіть правильні слова до пропусків у реченнях:

1. The capital of a … company is divided into a number of shares which are distributed among the shareholders.

2. The company is called a … company if the shares are offered for the sale to the public.

3. Family companies are often … , it means that all the shares are in the hands of members of one family.

4. The … of the company meet at annual general meetings where the Board of Directors render … of the company’s activities.

5. Securities acknowledging the company’s indebtedness and bearing a fixed interest are called … .

6. An association of 2 to 20 persons who join their capital and skill for the purpose of business is called … .

7. … partners put only a fixed amount of capital in the partnership business and their liability for any debts of the firm is limited.

8. The only owner of the business undertaking is called … … .

2-й СЕМЕСТР

THE PROCESS OF MANAGEMENT

The process of management consists of certain basic management functions such as: planning, organizing and controlling, linked together by leading. Planning determines what results the organization will achieve; organizing specifies how it will achieve the results; and controlling determines whether the results are achieved. Throughout planning, organizing and controlling, managers exercise leadership.

PLANNING. The planning function is the capstone activity of management. Planning activities determine an organization's objectives and establish the appropriate strategies for achieving those objectives. The organizing, leading and controlling functions all derive from planning in that these functions carry out the planning decisions.

Planning is done by all managers at every level of the organization. Through their plans, managers outline what the organization must do to be successful. While plans may differ in focus, they are all concerned with achieving organizational goals in the short and long term. Taken as a whole, an organization's plans are the primary tools for preparing for and dealing with changes in the organization's environment.

ORGANIZING. After managers develop objectives and plans to achieve the objectives, they must design and develop an organization that will be able to accomplish the objectives. Thus, the purpose of the organizing function is to create a structure of task and authority relationships that serves this purpose.

The organizing function takes the tasks identified during planning and assigns them to individuals and groups within the organization so that objectives set by planning can be achieved, organizing, then, can be thought of as turning plans into action. The organizing function also provides an organizational structure that enables the organization to function effectively as a cohesive whole.

LEADING. Once objectives have been developed and the organizational structure has been designed and staffed, the next step is to begin to move the organization toward the objectives. The leading function serves this purpose. Sometimes called directing or motivating, leading involves influencing the members of the organization to perform in ways that accomplish the organization's objectives.

The leading focuses directly on the people in the organization, since its major purpose is to channel human behaviour toward accomplishing organizational goals. Effective leadership is highly prized ability in organizations and is a skill that some managers have difficulty in developing. The ability requires both task-oriented capabilities and the ability to communicate, understand, and motivate people.

CONTROLLING. Finally, a manager must make sure that the actual performance of the organization conforms with the performance that was planned for the organization. This is the controlling function of management, and it requires three elements: (1) established standards of performance, (2) information that indicates deviations between actual performance and the established standards, and (3) action to correct performance that does not meet the standards. Simply speaking, the purpose of management control is to make sure the organization stays on the path that was planned for it.

At this point, one should note that the management process does not involve four separate or unrelated activities but a group of closely related functions. Also the four functions do not necessarily occur in the sequence we have presented. In fact, the only time they might do so is when a new organization is being formed. In reality, various combinations of the four activities usually occur simultaneously.

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Human resource management (HRM) is the management of various activities designed to enhance the effectiveness of an organization's work force. Major activities include human resource planning, staffing, development and evaluation, compensation, and maintenance of effective work-force relationships. The strategic importance of HRM has been increasing, particularly since the late 1970s and early 1980s.

Human resource planning considers both demand for and supply of human resources relative to an organization's strategic plan. Such planning relies on job analysis and resulting job descriptions and job specifications. Assessing demand involves considering major forces that can influence demand and using basic forecasting techniques to predict future demand. Assessing supply entails determining internal and external labour supplies. In reconciling future demand and supply, organizations also need to consider affirmative action implications.

Staffing is the set of activities aimed at attracting and selecting individuals for positions in a way that will facilitate the achievement of organizational goals. The attraction aspect of staffing involves recruitment. Most organizations engage in extensive internal recruitment in order to offer job opportunities to current employees. For the most part, organizations engage in external recruiting only when there are no suitable internal candidates for particular positions. The selection aspect of staffing focuses on determining which job candidates best suit organizational needs. An important issue in selection is validity, which addresses how well a selection device or method actually predicts a candidate's future job performance. The most prevalent selection methods include the use of application blanks, selection interviews, tests, assessment centres, and reference checks, each of which can facilitate the selection process if used properly.

Training and development is a planned effort to facilitate employee learning of job-related behaviours in order to improve employee performance. Training typically includes three main phases: assessment, training design and implementation, and evaluation. Major types of training programs include orientation training, technical skill training, and management development programs. Performance appraisal is the process of defining expectations for employee performance; measuring, evaluating, and recording employee performance relative to those expectations, and providing feedback to the employee. Major methods of performance appraisal include behaviour-oriented approaches, such as the use of graphic rating scales, and behaviourally anchored rating scales, and results-oriented approaches, such as management by objectives. Because performance raters tend to be susceptible to biases that produce rating errors, they must engage in three somewhat incompatible roles (leader, coach and judge) in earning out an effective performance appraisal interview.

Compensation systems need to consider internal, external, and individual equity in developing pa) structures and allocating individual pay. The most common approach to devising pa} structures depends on the point factor method of job evaluation, organizations also are attempting to reward entrepreneurs through specialised pay approaches, such as bonus programs, and are encouraging work-force flexibility and innovation through such means as skill-based pay and gainsharing.

Maintaining positive work-force relationships includes engaging in effective labour-management relations and making appropriate responses to current employee issues, organizations become unionised through a certification process regulated by the National Labour Relations Board. Unions can become decertified through a similar process. Among the major current employee issues are protection from arbitrary dismissal, drug and alcohol abuse, privacy rights, and family matters as they impact work.

THE MAIN ELEMENTS OF ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

Job design. The most important element of an organization structure are the jobs that people perform. And management's most important organizing responsibility is to design jobs that enable people to perform the right tasks. Although we can think about jobs in a number of different ways, the usual way is in terms of specialisation. In fact, the ability to divide overall tasks into smaller and specialised tasks is the chief advantage of organized effort. All organizations consist of specialised jobs, people doing different tasks.

A major managerial decision is to determine the extend to which jobs will be specialised. Historically we have seen that managers will tend to divide jobs into rather narrow specialities because of the advantages of division of labour. Two such advantages are:

1. If a job consists of few tasks, you can quickly train replacements for personnel who are terminated, transferred, or otherwise absent. The minimum training effort results in a lower training cost.

2. When a job entails only a limited number of tasks, the employee can become highly proficient in performing those tasks. This proficiency can result in a better quality of output.

The benefits of specialisation are largely economic and technical, and they usually apply to nonmanagerial jobs. But similar economic and technical benefits can be gained through specialisation in managerial positions, as well.

Specialisation, or division, of labour at the job level is measured in relative terms. One job can be more or less specialized than another. In making comparisons of degrees of .specialisation, it is useful to identify five aspects that differentiate jobs:

1. Work pace - the more control the individual has over how fast she must work, the less specialised the job.

2. Job repetitiveness - the greater the number of tasks to perform the less specialised the job.

3. Skill requirements - the more skilled the job holder must be the less specialised the job.

4. Methods specification - the more latitude the job holder has in using methods and tools , the less specialised the job.

5. Required attention - the more mental attention a job requires, the less specialised it is.

Departmentation. The process of combining jobs into groups is termed departmentation A manager must have a basis, or rational for combining jobs. There is functional departmentation. When jobs are grouped according to the functions of the organization, when individuals perform specialised jobs in the given areas. The territorial departmentation is found when all activities in a geographic area are assigned to a particular manager, who is in charge of all the operations in the given area. Product Departmentation occurs in many large, diversified companies, where activities and personnel are grouped on the basis of product. Customer Departmentation is frequently found in educational institutions.

Span of Control. A span of control comes down to the decision of how many people a manager can effectively oversee; that is will the organization be more effective if the manager's span of control is relatively large or small.

The only feasible approach of determining optimal span of control is to weigh the relative importance of a number of factors. Those factors include the following:

1. The competence of both the manager and the subordinates.

2. The degree of interaction that is required among the units to be supervised.

3. The extend to which the managers must carry out non-managerial tasks.

4. The relative similarity or dissimilarity of the jobs being supervised.

5. The extent of standardised procedures.

6. The degree of physical dispersion.

Delegation of Authority. Delegation of authority is the final issue managers must consider when designing an organizational structure. In practical terms, the issue concerns the relative benefits of decentralization; that is, delegation of authority to the lowest possible level in the managerial hierarchy. The concept of decentralization does not refer to geographic dispersion of the organization’s operating units; rather, it refers to the delegated right of managers to make decisions without approval by higher management.

BUSINESS PLAN

Regardless of which type of business an individual decides to enter there are major preparations involved. Major preparatory steps include developing a business plan, obtaining the necessary resources, and selecting an appropriate site for business.

Most small-business and entrepreneurship experts strongly recommend the development of a business plan. A business plan is a document written by the prospective owner or entrepreneur that details the nature of business, the product or service, the customers, the competition, the production and marketing methods, the management, the financing, and other significant aspects of the proposed business venture.

A well-prepared business plan can take 200 to 400 hours or even more to complete, depending on the complexity of the business contemplated, the strength of the competition, the number of different parties involved, and the number of other factors that must be considered.

A business plan serves several important purposes. For one thing, it helps prospective owners and entrepreneurs carefully think through every I aspect of their proposed endeavour. Since the business plan requires writing down information about such aspect as the risks involved, financing requirements, and intended markets, prospective owners and entrepreneurs are forced to think concretely about such matters.

Another important purpose of a business plan is to help prospective owners and entrepreneurs obtain financing. For example, the U. S. Small Business Administration (SBA) requires that a business plan accompany applications for the agency's small-business loan program. Most private investors will not even consider financing a venture without seeing a well-thought-out business plan. For example, entrepreneur uses business plans to help obtain outside funding for his various ventures. Obtaining significant funding from banks also will involve submitting a business plan. Even short-run loans may be easier to negotiate when an entrepreneur can demonstrate that a new business venture is progressing according to plan.

Still another important purpose of a business plan is to provide a basis for measuring plan progress. Some experts argue that planning is particularly important for new ventures because of the inherent instability involved. A business plan can help establish milestones for periodic reviews, during which assumptions and accomplishments can be compared. Careful monitoring increases the likelihood of identifying significant deviations from the plan and making modifications before the frail new venture is forced out of business.

Finally, business plans often help prospective owners and entrepreneurs establish credibility with others, which is required for the organization's success. For example, potential employees may need to be convinced that they are joining an organization with a strong chance of success. Suppliers may be more willing to extend a line of credit when the business plan appears sound. Major customers may be more inclined to place orders when there are convincing arguments that the new venture or small business will be able to deliver the necessary products or services.