7. Знайдіть серед поданих слів слова з протилежними значеннями та запишіть антонімічні пари.

Civil; to break; civilized; inferior; to minimize; to violate; barbaric; superior; criminal; to maximize; to obey; to keep;

8. Знайдіть у тексті “The Nature and Categories of Law” підкреслені слова. Визначте, в якому з поданих значень вони вживаються в тексті.

1) order a) ордер б) порядок

2) society a) товариство б) суспільство

3) regimented a) строго регламентований б) організований

4) solemnity a) формальність б) важливість

5) binding a) сполучний, єднальний б) обов’язковий

6) social a) суспільний б) соціальний

7) public a) суспільний б) публічний

8) state a) стан б) держава

9) authority a) орган влади б) повноваження

9. Швидко перегляньте текст “The Nature and Categories of Law”, з’ясуйте, чому він розділений на дві частини (I та II), та дайте назву кожній із них. У якій частині от1 міститься така інформація:

1. forms of order

2. role of law in civilized societies

3. concept of written and unwritten law

4. definition of law

5. sources of the Case Law

6. functions of law

7. forms of public and private law

10. Прочитайте текст “The Nature and Categories of Law” уважно, звертаючи увагу на деталі. Випишіть із нього виділені жирним шрифтом слова та сполучення слів і запишіть їхні українські відповідники.

Основний текст (ОТ1)

THE NATURE AND CATEGORIES OF LAW

I One of the most obvious and most central characteristics of all societies is that they must possess some degree of order to permit the members to interact over a sustained period of time. Different societies, however, have different forms of order. Some societies are highly regimented with strictly enforced social rules whereas others continue to function with few strict rules being enforced. Order is therefore necessary, but the form through which order is maintained is certainly not universal.

In civilized societies law plays an important role in the creation and maintenance of social legal order by dealing with disorder and various conflicts through different civil and criminal institutions and procedures. Almost every aspect of life in the modern state is regulated or affected in some way by law. There are laws, which provide for the remedying of defined grievances (e.g. by the payment of damages in respect of accidentally inflicted injuries), laws which prohibit anti-social activities and provide for the imposition of penal sanctions for breach (criminal law of murder or theft), laws which regulate potentially harmful activities by, for example, systems of licensing, registration or inspection, usually in conjunction with the prescription of standards (liquor licensing, the protection of health and safety at work), laws which facilitate private arrangements (marriages, contracts, wills) and others. Thus law is a formal mechanism of social control.

Black’s Law Dictionary defines law as: “A body of rules of action or conduct prescribed by controlling authority and having binding legal force. Law is that which must be obeyed and followed by citizens and subjects to sanctions or legal consequences”. This body of rules is formulated through mechanisms represented by the branches of government. The process of balancing the competing claims among various parties remains the single most necessary aspect of problem resolution through law.

What are the primary functions of law? Keeping the peace, shaping moral standards, and promoting social justice while maximizing individual freedom are certainly among the primary functions. Law also facilitates orderly change by passing statutes only after considerable study and debate.

II There are various ways of categorizing law. Laws are traditionally divided into two main categories according to the solemnity of the form in which they are made. They may either be written or unwritten. These traditional terms are misleading, because the expression ‘written’ law signifies any law that is formally enacted, whether reduced to writing or not, and the expression ‘unwritten’ law signifies all unenacted laws. For example, judicial decisions are often reduced to writing in the form of law reports, but because they are not formal enactments they are ‘unwritten’ law.

Considered from the aspect of the sources, English law can also be divided into Statute Law, Common Law and Case Law. Statute Law consists of all laws passed by the Parliament and confirmed by the Sovereign. They are called Acts of Parliament or statutes. Common Law consists of the principles and rules of conduct based on the ancient customs of the country and recognized by the courts as laws. Common Law is unwritten because these rules were not enacted by the Parliament. The ‘common law’ was the term that came to be used for the laws and customs applied by the royal courts which emerged after the Norman Conquest. The Common Law progressively replaced local laws and customs applied in local courts and became common throughout the country. Just as many ancient customs make up the Common Law, the collected decisions of the courts form English Case Law, which is also often referred to as ‘common law’. The term ‘common law’ is used here to denote rules derived from binding decisions of the superior courts in contrast to those derived from statutes.

Law also can be divided into private law, which involves relationships between individual citizens, and public law concerning the relationships of the individual and the state and involves matters of state power. Civil law and criminal law are the forms of private law and public law respectively.