Defining Ethics

The pressures described in the opening vignette were created by ethical situations, problems and dilemmas typical for a public relations manager. They range from relatively small, personal ones to large, corporate issues affecting thousands, sometimes millions, of people. The dilemmas are experienced as pressure because they are not easily solved. By definition, ethical dilemmas are not easy; they are perplexing situations involving decisions about what is right and wrong. Often they require making a choice between equally undesirable alternatives. They always have something to do with values, which means that they evoke strong emotions.

LO 2-2 Mouse-over of the terms "ethical situations, problems and dilemmas" No permissions required. Title: Quick definitions for now. More detailed descriptions later in this chapter. Text: Ethical situations are handled best by someone stepping forward and doing the right thing. Ethical problems are more complex because there are two or more possible ethical solutions. Ethical dilemmas are such that someone or something is going to be harmed no matter what is done. Ethical dilemmas are characterized by having to choose among undesirable alternatives, picking the one that does the least amount of harm.

Ethics can be defined as the set of criteria by which decisions are made about what is right and what is wrong. As management scientists have pointed out, one of the most important functions of a manager is to establish the criteria by which decisions are made within an organization.1 By establishing these criteria—for example, to increase sales at all costs, to turn away unsavory clients if need be, to never question the decisions of superiors, to give women and minorities equal opportunities—managers establish guidelines that employees use to decide what is right and what is wrong.

What Is Right? What Is Good?

Ethics can be defined as a branch of philosophy that is concerned not only with what is right and what is wrong, but also with what is good and what is bad. Public relations scholar Don Wright has pointed out that ethics is not about being right; it’s about being good. The key to ethical decision making in public relations, according to Wright, is determining what is a good action by an organization. Wright points out that certain acts are essentially good, regardless of motives for doing them or their consequences: being honest, sincere, and truthful, for example. Contemporary philosophers have made the same point by arguing that being virtuous is the same, regardless of culture; it is knowing and practicing goodness.2

Wright says there is a problem when law becomes the primary standard for ethical action because the emphasis is placed upon what is right rather than on what is good, and upon society rather than on the individual. Law, Wright says, cannot solve the problems of ethics. Being ethical means more than being honest and obeying the law; being ethical means being good.3

In the official code of ethics of the Caterpillar Tractor Company, the same point is made:

The law is a floor. Ethical business conduct should normally exist at a level well above the minimum required by law.4

While ethics and morals are often used synonymously, some distinctions can be made. Ethics can be defined narrowly as standards of personal integrity and honest dealings, especially among individuals within organizational settings. Morals can refer to principles considered important for acceptable behavior by individuals within families, communities, and society at large. For example, white collar crimes often are described as violations of business ethics while other crimes, particularly violent and sex-related crimes, are referred to in terms of morals. On the other hand, ethics can be defined as broadly as morals. According to Morton Simon, “Ethics is concerned with clarifying what constitutes human welfare and the kind of conduct necessary to promote it.”5

One management scientist has argued that the basic dimensions of any ethical situation can be identified by asking the following questions:6

• What are the goals of the people involved in this situation? What do they want to achieve?

• How do they intend to achieve these goals?

• What are their motives for doing this?

• What will be the consequences of their actions?