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Conclusions from Personal Interviews

Two general conclusions can be drawn from these cases. One is that large, bureaucratic organizations generate a lot of ethical dilemmas that can be characterized as political infighting. For example, in Case 2.1, the public affairs director for the state agency released inaccurate information because one of his colleagues was "empire building" and not following standard procedures. In Case 2.4, the young editor was eager to buck authority and willing to break bureaucratic rules to get his way.

The other conclusion is that the more candid managers are, the more likely they will quickly and effectively resolve ethical problems. For example, in Case 2.2, the candor and rapport of the public relations director and the reporter helped to solve an awkward situation. In Case 2.4, the openness of the CEO to suggestions and the willingness of the director of personnel to support the research indicated an open, flexible management philosophy that resulted in a new publication and an enthusiastic editor.

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Two Controversial Alternative Explanations

Sociobiological Perspectives

The controversial field of sociobiology, first defined by Edward Wilson, helps explain and predict certain ethical behaviors when it argues that altruistic behaviors facilitate the development of strong gene pools—one of the basic purposes of life, according to Wilson.85 Because extreme altruistic behaviors are self-sacrificing, they do not appear to be the types of actions that would contribute to the gene pool; whoever sacrificed him or herself would not be able to reproduce and continue the species. However, sociobiologists argue that because most self-sacrificing behaviors are designed to help kin, and because those kin live on to contribute to the gene pool, altruistic behaviors are important to the survival of the species.

The sociogbiologist's argument goes further; it asserts that human language developed tens of thousands of years ago as a result of altruistic utterances warning others of danger. The argument is that most communication and most cooperative actions, including altruistic behaviors, originally were prompted by and directed to kin and loved ones. These behaviors not only warned others of dangers, but also announced a source of food, and asked for, as one writer put it, "cooperation for the purpose of genetic recombination…sex."86

Unethical communication, lying, also is explained by sociobiologists. In many instances, the argument goes, deception helps contribute to the gene pool. For example, not telling an enemy about a danger, not disclosing a source of food, or exaggerating sexual prowess are behaviors which can facilitate kin selection and survival of the species.

The Evolution of Consciousness—and Conscience

An even more controversial theory than sociobiology is the radical notion of Princeton psychologist Julian Jaynes. He contents that the human brain has evolved and continues to evolve, and with it, our conscience.87 For thousands of years humans had very distinct left and right brain hemispheres which Jaynes describes as bicameral mind. Within the past three to five thousand years, Jaynes states, humans physiologically have evolved to experience a more fluid interconnection between the two brain hemispheres. With what Jaynes calls the breakdown of the bicameral mind, consciousness—human self-awareness—emerged.

Jaynes argues hat only with increasing self-awareness over time did humans develop a conscience, a sense of what is right and wrong in one's behavior. His provocative theory is that prior to the breakdown of the bicameral mind, ethical decisions were based on perceived external authorities hear as voices within the mind. (Jaynes contends that schizophrenics today hear similar internal voices "telling me what to do" because they suffer, for some reason, from an impeded breakdown of the bicameral mind.) During the bicameral period, humans behaved, according the Jaynes, in an unself-conscious, stimulus-response mode, reacting from moment to moment, with little or no sense of time or history. With the evolution of a more fluid interconnection between the two brain hemispheres, Jaynes argues, humans began to use both authoritative (deontological) and naturalistic teleological criteria for making ethical decisions.

Jaynes uses prehistorical and historical evidence to support his theory. He notes that during the bicameral period, writing began. During this time, religious writing reflected polytheism, the belief in a variety of gods. With the breakdown of the bicameral mind, Jaynes notes, monotheism emerged, and most world religions began to focus on a single god. At the same historic time period, secular writings, such as the Iliad (written in about 800 B.C.), used the narrative "I" for the first time to describe the author's self-awareness. His argument is that the notion of deciding for ourselves what is right and wrong is three to five thousand years old. Jaynes argues that the development of ethics is linked closely to the development of language and an evolving sense of self-awareness.

Chapter Summary

When a public relations practitioner is confronted with an ethical dilemma and wants to do something about the situation, there are three options: (1) use intuitive rules or principles based on authoritative sources; (2) predict the consequences of different actions and choose the best one: or, most likely, (3) decide what to do based on some combination of the first two options. Whatever choices are made, they will be influenced by intrapersonal, small group, and organizational factors. The public relations manager who is aware of all the various forces operating within any particular ethical dilemma will be in a better position to make the right choice.

LO 2-10 Learn More No permissions needed Title: Ethical Guidelines and Career Advice Explanation: put this LO close to the beginning of the chapter. ETHICAL GUIDELINES AND CAREER ADVICE The following comments were given by professional public relations practitioners who responded to a confidential mail survey that asked three questions, each one focused on ethical issues affecting entry-level, middle-management, and senior-management public relations positions: 1. What ethical guidelines or career advice would you recommend for someone to consider who is in an entry-level public relations position? “Keep in mind that there are many facets and considerations relating to the operation of your organization of which you may not be aware. Don’t be too quick to judge some action as unethical. Be cautious, listen, and learn the ropes of your organization, especially the political and other implications of any action you may propose. Study your boss to see how he or she handles various kinds of situations.” “Always check with the public relations director before releasing any information to the media. And, in his or her absence, check with the highest and/or most knowledgeable person in the organization. Once information is out, it is difficult to alter or retract. When in doubt, do what is or may appear to be on the conservative side. While timeliness is important—it is one of the most important criteria by which reporters are rated—correctness is always the stronger element of rating for the public relations practitioner.” “Be honest. Make friends with other public relations professionals—you’re going to need them.” “When in doubt, talk to your supervisor.” “Never tell a lie. Be loyal to your boss and your organization.” 2. What ethical guidelines or career advice would you recommend for someone to consider who is in a middle-management public relations position? “You’re an advocate for your organization, and there’s nothing wrong with that; it’s your job to put the best face on your organization. Often it’s the press’s job to ferret out unfavorable facts about the organization. And, too often, the press often doesn’t bother to mention the good aspects of your organization. So, you must act as a balance, giving a fair picture of the situation. This doesn’t mean hiding bad news that is necessary for the public to know.” “You may find yourself teaching non-public relations superiors, and often the media, what good public relations and ethics are all about. As a public relations practitioner, you are looked to as the opinion leader in these matters. Develop trust/openness, and you will get the same in return.” “Be honest. Keep in touch with your colleagues on a regular basis.” “Transfer ethical problems on the job to your personal life—hypothetically, that is: if you would consider the situation unethical in that context, then it most likely is also unethical on the job.” “Never tell a lie. Be loyal to your boss and your organization.” 3. What ethical guidelines or career advice would you recommend for someone to consider who is in a senior-management public relations position? “By the time you have reached a senior-management public relations position, you have the wisdom and experience to act as an advisor to senior management. You should speak out if you think some action is unethical, and advise management that acting unethically for short-term gain can very well backfire in the long run and cause the organization more trouble than it’s worth.” “Remember the basics: double-check your information, no matter how high up your source, before releasing information to the public. Remember that many reporters seem to have a need to report some sort of controversy in the best of articles. You will need to learn to live with this. Don’t forget: a half-truth, puffed or excessively colored information will catch up with you and may cause you and your organization harm. Truth be known: the public relations person is often a reporter’s only or final word on a topic. It is, therefore, your ethical duty to make sure that what you release is accurate in every sense.” “Do not be afraid to ask difficult questions. Do not compromise your personal integrity. Do not do anything illegal or that you cannot support.” “It is your role to bring unethical situations to the attention of senior management. If you fail to do so—and fail to offer solutions at the same time—then, you are failing in your job.” “Never tell a lie. Be loyal to your boss and your organization.”

i James Rachels, "The Elements of Moral Philosophy" (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999).

ii Ronald Arnett, "Communication and Community: Implications of Martin Buber's Dialogue" (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1986)

iii Clifford Christian, et. al., "Media Ethics" (New York: Longman, 20010); Mark McElreath, "Managing Systematic and Ethical Public Relations Campaigns" (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997)

(Chapter 2 bibiliography is a separate document.)

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