Category of Order B.S.Khaimovich and B.I.Rogovskaya

Is a system of two-member opposition: prior and non-prior.

So the prior order marker have + ed is opposite to the zero of non-prior. As in English there are three tenses this grammatical category can be expressed in all of them. Present: I work – I have worked. Past: I worked – I had worked. Future: I shall work – I shall have worked.

ADVERB

Meaning

some adverbs indicate time or place of an action (yesterday, here),

others indicate its property (quickly)

others the degree of a property (very)

Central meaning of the adverb is "property of an action or of a property".

Form - invariable.

Some of them, however, have degrees of comparison (fast, faster, fastest).

Function. (a) An adverb combines with a verb (run quickly), with an adjective (very long), occasionally with a noun (the then president) and with a phrase (so out of things). (b) An adverb can sometimes follow a preposition (from there). (c) In a sentence an adverb is almost always an adverbial modifier, or part of it (from there), but it may occasionally be an attribute.

Descriptive grammar

• It is a grammar that "describes" how language is used by its speakers. A descriptive grammar looks at the way a language is actually used by its speakers and then attempts to analyse it and formulate rules about the structure.

For example:

I am older than her.

TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR

• Non-Structural Descriptive Grammar

• Structural Descriptive Grammar

Non-Structural Descriptive Grammar

Henry Sweet (1845–1912).

His work New English Grammar, Logical and Historical (1891).

Otto Jespersen(1860–1943)

The Philosophy of Grammar (1924)

Classification of sentences based on their communicative function

Aspects of the sentence:

- the structural aspect – the form of the sentence, the way words are organized into it

- the semantic aspect – the meaning of the sent.

- the actual aspect – determines which part of the sent conveys the most imp.info

- the pragmatic aspect – the use of the sent.as a unit of communication: a statement, a question, an order, a request, a promise

Actual division of the sentence;

It is well known fact that the notional parts of the sentence form together the nominative meaning of the sentence. The division of the sentence into notional parts can be called the nominative division a long side of nominative division. The idea of the actual division has been put forward in theoretical linguistics. Its purpose is to reveal the correlative significance of the sentence parts from the point of view of their actual informative role in an utterance.

The main components of the actual division are the “theme” and the “rheme”.

Theme expresses the starting point of the communication.

Rheme expresses the basic informative part of the communication.

Between the theme and the rheme are positioned intermediary parts of the actual division. The theme may or may not coincide with the subject of the sentence. The rheme with a predicate. The actual division finds its full expression only in a concrete context of speech. If it is stylistically neutral construction the theme is the subject and the rheme is the predicate and this kind of actual division is direct. The actual division in which the rheme is expressed by the subject is inverted.

The means of expressing the rheme :

Lexical meanings – particles (only,even)

Logical stress-

Change of syntactic structure (It was he who did it)

Passive voice.

Means of expressing theme

Definite article.

Word order.

The actual division is an active means of expressing functional meaning.

И.Ф.Вардуаль: Division which presents the ‘basic item’ and the ‘nucleus of the message’, ‘theme’ and ‘rheme’, ‘given’ and ‘new’ was called by V.Mathesius “the actual division of the sentence” as distinguished from its “formal division”. Actual division is the result of the influence of context and situation.