1. Declarative

2. Interrogative

3. Imperative

In interrogative sentences very few modal words are used, as the meanings of some modal words are incompatible with the meaning of an interrogative sentence. It is clear that modal words expressing full certainty, such as certainly, surely, naturally, etc., cannot appear in a sentence expressing a question. On the other hand, the modal word indeed, with its peculiar shades of meaning, is quite possible in interrogative sentences, for instance, Isn't so indeed? (SHAKESPEARE)

There are also sentences which might be termed semi-interrogative. The third sentence in the following passage belongs to this type:

"Well, I daresay that's more revealing about poor George than you. At any rate, he seems to have survived it." "Oh, you've seen him?" She did not particularly mark her question for an answer, but it was, after all, the pivot-point, and Bone found himself replying — that indeed he had. (BUECHNER) The sentence Oh, you've seen him? is half-way between the affirmative declarative sentence, You have seen him, and the interrogative sentence, Have you seen him? Let us proceed to find out the precise characteristics of the sentence in the text as against the two sentences just given for the sake of comparison. From the syntactical viewpoint, the sentence is declarative, as the mutual position of subject and predicate is, you have seen, not have you seen, which would be the interrogative order. In what way or ways does it, then, differ from a Usual declarative sentence? That is where the question of the intonation comes in. Whether the question mark at the end of the sentence does or does not mean that the intonation is not that typical of a declarative sentence, is hard to tell, though it would rather seem that it does. To be certain about this a phonetic experiment should be undertaken, but in this particular case the author gives a context which itself goes some way toward settling the question. The author's words, She did not particularly mark her question for an answer, seem to refer to the intonation with which it was pronounced: the intonation must not have been clearly interrogative, that is not clearly rising, though it must have differed from the regular falling intonation to some extent: if it had not been at all different, the sentence could not have been termed a "question", and the author does call it a question. Reacting to this semi-interrogative intonation, Bone (the man to whom the question was addressed) answered in the affirmative. It seems the best way, on the whole, to term such sentences semi-interrogative. Their purpose of course is to utter a somewhat hesitating statement and to expect the other person to confirm it[3].

Imperative sentences also show marked peculiarities in the use of modal words. It is quite evident, for example, that modal words expressing possibility, such as perhaps, maybe, possibly, are incompatible with the notion of order or request. Indeed, modal words are hardly used at all in imperative sentences.

The notion of exclamatory sentences and their relation to the three established types of declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences presents some difficulty. It would seem that the best way to deal with it is this. On the one hand, every sentence, whether narrative, interrogative, or imperative, may be exclamatory at the same time, that is, it may convey the speaker's feelings and be characterised by emphatic intonation and by an exclamation mark in writing. This may be seen in the following examples: Bat he can't do anything to you! (R. WEST) What can he possibly do to you! (Idem) Scarlett, spare me! (M. MITCHELL)

On the other hand, a sentence may be purely exclamatory, that is. it may not belong to any of the three types classed above. This would be the case in the following examples: "Well, fiddle-dee-dee!" said Scarlett. (M. MITCHELL) Oh, for God's sake, Henry! (Idem)[8].

However, it would perhaps be better to use different terms for sentences which are purely exclamatory, and thus constitute a special type, and those which add an emotional element to their basic quality, which is either declarative, or interrogative, or imperative. If this view is endorsed, we should have our classification of sentences according to type of communication thus modified:

1. Declarative (including emotional ones)

2. Interrogative (including emotional ones)

3. Imperative (including emotional ones)

4. Exclamatory

This view would avoid the awkward contradiction of exclamatory sentences constituting a special type and belonging to the first three types at the same time.

Types of Sentences According to Structure

1. Simple

2. Composite

The relations between the two classifications should now be considered.

It is plain that a simple sentence can be either declarative, or interrogative, or imperative. But things are somewhat more complicated with reference to composite sentences. If both (or all) clauses making up a composite sentence are declarative, the composite sentence as a whole is of course declarative too. And so it is bound to be in every case when both (or all) clauses making a composite sentence belong to the same type of communication (that is the case in an overwhelming majority of examples). Sometimes, however, composite sentences are found which consist of clauses belonging to different types of communication. Here it will sometimes he impossible to say to what type of communication the composite sentence as a whole belongs. We will take up this question when we come to the composite sentence.

Some other questions connected with the mutual relation of the two classifications will be considered as we proceed[8].

Classification of Sentences B.S.Khaimovich and B.I.Rogovskaya

A. As to Their Structure

Sentences with only one predication are called simple sentences. Those with more than one predication have usually no general name. We shall call them composite sentences.

In a composite sentence each predication together with the words attached is called a clause.

Composite sentences with coordinated clauses are com­pound sentences.

She's a very faithful creature and I trust her. (Cronin).

Composite sentences containing subordinated clauses are complex sentences.

If I let this chance slip, I'm a fool. (Cronin).

In a complex sentence we distinguish the principal clause (I'm a fool) and the subordinate clause (If I let this chance slip) or clauses.

We may also differentiate compound-complex (He seems a decent chap, and he thinks Ferse at the moment is as sane as himself. Galsworthy), and complex-compound (When that long holocaust of sincerity was over and the bride had gone, she subsided into a chair. Galsworthy) sentences.

There may be several degrees of subordination in a complex sentence.

It was almost nine o'clock before he reached the club, where he found Lord Henry sitting alone. (Wilde).

The clause where he found Lord Henry sitting alone is subordinated to the subordinate clause before he reached the club and is therefore of the second degree of subordination.

The clauses of a composite sentence may be joined with the help of connective words (syndetically) or directly, without connectives (asyndetically).

E. g. We consent to be in the hands of men- in order that they may be in ours. (Galsworthy). You're modern, Fleur; I'm mediaeval. (Ib.).

A simple sentence or a clause containing some words besides the predication is called extended. An unextended sentence (clause) contains no other parts but the subject and the predicate.

A sentence (clause) with several subjects to one predicate or several predicates to one subject is called a contracted one.

E. g. Diana crossed to the window and stood there with her back to Dinny. (Ib.).

The dominating type of sentence (clause), with full predication, i. e. containing both the subject and the predi­cate, is called a two-member sentence (clause). All other types are usually called one-member sentences (clauses). Here are some examples of one-member sentences.

Put your money on Old Maid. (Galsworthy).

A cup of teal

Thanks.

These sentences are representatives of certain types that are established in the language system alongside of the two- member type. They are not speech modifications of some other type of sentence, as the so-called 'elliptical' sentences.

B. As to Their Categories

The sentences He is a student — Is he a student? form a syntactical opposeme. Their forms differ only in the type of intonation and the relative position of the members of the predication. The only difference in meaning is that between 'declaration' and 'interrogation'. These two meanings can be regarded as the manifestations of the general meaning of a grammatical (syntactical) category which has no name yet. The category shows whether the sentence is presented as a statement or as a question. Let us call it the category of presentation. Like any grammatical category this is a system of opposemes whose members differ in form to express only (and all) the particular manifestations of the general meaning of the category.

The meaning of 'declaration' is expressed by a falling tone and by placing the subject before the predicate. The meaning of interrogation is expressed by a rising tone and by placing the structural (part of the) predicate before the subject.

Are you alluding to me? (Shaw).

Shall I announce hini? (lb.).

Is there no higher power than that? (Ib.).

Do you call poverty a crime? (Ib.).

In the last example a special syntactical predicate, the syntactical word-morpheme do is introduced and placed before the subject.

With regard to the category of 'presentation' Eng­lish sentences divide into those that have 'presentation' opposites and those which have not. Imperative and exclama­tory sentences mostly belong to the latter subclass-'In these sentences the opposeme of 'presentation' is neutralized. The member of neutralization usually resembles that of 'statement' (Go to the blackboard. Let us begin. Lookout!) But often it takes the form of the 'interrogation' member (Would you mind holding your tongue? (Hornby). Pass the salt, will you? Isn't she a beauty/) or an 'intermediate' form (How pretty she is!)

Not all interrogative sentences are syntactical opposites of declarative sentences.

The meaning of 'interrogation' in 'special questions' (otherwise called W/z-questions) is expressed either lexically^: (when the subject or its attribute in a statement are replaced by the interrogative pronouns who, what, which or whose) or lexico-syntactically (when some other part of a statement is replaced by some interrogative pronoun). In either case they are not opposites of the corresponding statements because they differ lexically[9].

The alternative question Are you going out or do you prefer to stay at home? is a compound sentence containing two coordinating interrogative clauses each of which is the syntactical opposite of a declarative clause. Only the intonation of the second clause is not interrogative.

Disjunctive questions are peculiar complex sentences the principal clause being a statement and the subordinate clause the syntactical opposite of its predication with regard to two categories, ‘information’.

You don’t smoke, do you? She is beautiful, isn’t she?

The meaning of 'affirmative' information is expressed by a zero form, and the meaning of 'negative' information' by means of the predicate negation, the syntactical word-mor­pheme not (n't) placed after the syntactical (part of the)

Not every sentence containing a negation is the syntactical opposite of an affirmative sentence. There was nobody in the room is not the opposite of There was somebody in the room. Here the difference is in the lexical meaning of somebody and nobody. Similarly in There is a book on the table, and There is no book on the table the difference is lexical.

With regard to the category of information English sentences divide into those that have opposites of the category and those which have not. Since 'negative information' is expressed in English only by means of the predicate negation, all the sentences that have no predicates are outside the cate­gory. Rain. No rain, are not members of a syntactical opposeme. They only resemble the corresponding members and may be said to possess lexico-grammatical meanings of 'affirmative' and 'negative' information. In exclamatory sentences the category of information is mostly neutralized. The member of neutralization usually resembles that of 'affirmation'. What a lovely day! But often it takes the form of the member of 'negation'. Isn't it marvelous!

The sentences above can be regarded as opposemes of the category of expressiveness. The two particular meanings are those of 'emphatic' and 'non-emphatic' expressiveness.

'Non-emphatic' expressiveness has a zero form, whereas 'emphasis' is expressed by a strong accent on a word-morpheme (morphological or syntactical). In sentences like He did come a special syntactical word-morpheme is placed before the notional verb to receive the stress[10].