The Complete Guide To The TOEFL Test

112 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

What Is Tested in This Section?

In general, there are five main points tested. The chart below shows how these are presented in the next section of the Guide.

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The points practiced in the first group of lessons (Lessons 17 to 23) are tested on almost every TOEFL exam. The points in the second group (Lessons 24 to 31) are tested on many TOEFL exams.

What Is the Best Way to Answer Structure Items?

If the answer choices are fairly short, you should begin by taking a quick look at the answer choices to get an idea of what to look for when you read the sentence. A look at the answer choices can often tell you that you are looking at a problem involving verb forms, word order, parallel structure, misplaced modifiers, or others.

If the answer choices are long or complicated, begin by reading the stem. Don't analyze it word for word, but as you are reading, try to form a picture of the sentence's overall structure. How many clauses will there be in the complete sentence? Does each clause have a complete subject and verb?

Is there a connecting word to join clauses? Are any other elements obviously missing?

Then look at the answer choices. If you're not sure of the answer, try to elinlinate as many distractors as possible. Distractors in Structure are generally incorrect for one of the following reasons:

• A necessary word or phrase is missing, so the sentence is still incomplete.

•An unnecessary word or phrase is included.

•Part of the answer choice is ungrammatical when put into the stem.

Never choose an answer until you've read the sentence completely; sometinles an option seems to fit in the sentence unless you read every word.

After you have eliminated as many answer choices as possible, read the sentence quickly to yourself with the remaining choice or choices in place of the blank. If an answer doesn't "sound right," it probably isn't. If you still can't decide, guess and go on. If you have time, come back to these more difficult items later.

Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 113

Punctuation clues can sometimes help you solve Structure problems. For example, if there are a series of items in a sentence separated by commas (A, B, and C), you will probably see a problem involving parallel structures.

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• If the answer choices are short, look them over before you read the sentence. Try to get an idea of what type of problem you are working with.

•Read the sentence, trying to determine which elements are missing. Never choose an answer until you have read the entire sentence; sometimes an answer will seem to fit until you have read the last few words of the sentence.

•Mark your choice immediately if the answer is obvious. If you're not sure, try to eliminate incorrect answers.

•Read the sentence with the remaining answer choices in place of the blank. Choose the option that sounds best.

•If you are still unable to decide on an answer, guess and and go on. Lightly mark these items on your answer sheet and come back to them if time permits.

•Go on to the second part of this section (Written Expression) as soon as you've finished Structure. Don't spend so much time working on Structure that you don't have enough time to finish Written Expression.

114 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

LESSON 17

INCOMPLETE INDEPENDENT ClAUSES

The structures practiced in this lesson are the ones that are most often tested in the Structure section. About 20% of all problems in the section (usually three or four per test) involve incomplete independent clauses.

A) Clauses

All sentences consist of one or more clauses. A simple sentence consists of one clause.

People need vitamins.

The man took a vitamin pill.

Judy lives in northern California.

In the summer, Tom walks to his office.

A compound sentence consists of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (such as and and but).

The man took a vitamin pill, and he drank a glass of orange juice.

Judy lives in northern California now, but she was raised in Ohio.

A complex sentence consists of an independent clause (called the main clause) and a dependent (subordinate) clause. Subordinate clauses may be adverb clauses, noun clauses, or adjective clauses. In the sentences below, the independent clauses are italicized.

The man took a vitamin pill because he had a cold. (independent clause + adverb clause)

I didn't realize that Nancy was here. (independent clause + noun clause)

Tom walks to his office, which is located on Broadway, every day during the summer.

(independent clause + adjective clause)

All three types of subordinate clauses are commonly seen in the Structure part of the test, and each is considered in separate lessons (Lessons 18, 21, and 22). The emphasis in this chapter, however, is on the basic components of independent clauses.

B) Missing Subjects, Verbs, Objects, and Complements

All clauses have a subject and a verb. Clauses with an action verb often take a direct object as well.

The verb missing from an independent clause may be a single-word verb (need, was, took, had, walked) or a verb phrase consisting of one or more auxiliary verbs and a main verb (will need, has been, should take, would have had, had walked). The verbs may be active (need, take) or passive (was needed, is taken).

The missing subject and direct object may be a noun (people, vitamins, Tom) a noun phrase

(some famous people, a vitamin pill, my friend Tom) or a pronoun. (He, she, it, and they are subject pronouns; him, her, it and them are object pronouns.)

After the verb to be and certain other non-action verbs, a subject complement is used rather than a direct object. (Subject complements are also known as predicate nominatives and predicate adjectives.)

In the Structure section ofTOEFL, it is common for any of these elements or a combination of two or more of these elements to be missing from the stem. The most common problem in Structure involves a missing verb. A missing subject and a missing subject-verb combination are common as well. The missing element may also be part of rather than all of the verb or noun phrase.

T Sample Items

The art of storytelling ___~ almost as old as humanity.

(A)that is

(B)is

(C)it is

(D)being

The correct answer supplies the missing verb. Choice (A) is incorrect because the word that is used to connect a relative clause to a main clause; in this sentence, there is only one verb, so there can only be one clause. Choice (C) is incorrect because there is an unnecessary repetition of the subject (The art ofstorytelling it ...). Choice (D) is not correct because an -ing form (being) cannot be the main verb of a clause.

___~ a few of the sounds produced by insects can be heard by humans.

(A)Only

(B)There are only

(C)That only

(D)With only

The correct answer completes the noun phrase that is the subject of the sentence. The expletive There in choice (B) is incorrectly used. In (C), the word That creates a noun clause, but each clause must have its own verb. (Produced is used as a participle, not a main verb, in this sentence.) Choice (D) is incorrect because a preposition may not be used directly before the subject.

____ when lava cools very rapidly.

(A)Because pumice is formed

(B)To form pumice

(C)Pumice is formed

(D)Forming pumice

The best answer supplies an independent clause to join to the adverb clause when lava cools very rapidly. Choice (A) consists of an adverb clause; two adverb clauses cannot be joined to form a complete sentence. Choices (B) and (D) are incorrect because they do not contain main verbs, and an independent clause must contain a main verb. (To form andforming are not main verbs.) Only choice (C) could serve as an independent clause because it contains a subject (Pumice) and a full verb, the passive verb is formed.

116 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

Duke Ellington wrote ____ during his career.

(A)that over a thousand songs

(B)over a thousand songs

(C)over a thousand songs were

(D)there were over a thousand songs

The direct object is missing from this sentence. In choice (A), the connecting word that is used unnecessarily. In (C), the verb were is used unnecessarily because there is only one clause and it has a verb (wrote). In choice (D) the phrase there were is not needed between a verb and its direct object. Choice (B) correctly supplies a noun phrase that serves as the direct object.

Before the invention of the printing press, books ____

(A)that were very rare

(B)were very rarely

(C)were very rare

(D)as very rare

Choice (A) incorrectly forms an adjective clause; an adjective must be joined to a main clause. Choice (B) contains an adverb; after the verb to be, an adjective is required. Choice (D) lacks a verb. Choice (C) correctly supplies a verb (were). ...

C) Clauses with There and It

Some clauses begin with the introductory words there or it rather than with the subject of the sentence. These introductory words are sometimes called expletives.

The expletive there shows that someone or something exists, usually at a particular time or place. These sentences generally follow the pattern there + verb to be + subject:

There are many skyscrapers in New York City.

There was a good movie on television last night.

The expletive it is used in a number of different situations and patterns:

It is important to be punctual for appointments. (with the verb to be + adjective + infinitive)

It was in 1959 that Alaska became a state.

(with the verb to be + adverbial + noun clause) It takes a long time to learn a language.

(with the verb to take + time phrase + infinitive) - It was David who did most of the work.

(with the verb to be + noun + relative clause)

It and there, along with the verb and other sentence elements, may be missing from the stem.