8. Types of packages:

Bag- may be made of paper, linen, canvas or rubber.

Sack- a large bag usually made of jute.

Carton- strong container made of wood.

Crate – case, which has a bottom and a frame.

Drum - a cylindrical container for carrying liquids, chemicals or paint.

Cask - a wooden container, in the shape of a cylinder.

Keg - a small cask.

Barrel - a cask of medium size.

Hogshead - a large cask.

Bales - packages of soft goods.

Can (tin) - a small metal container for packing small quantities of paint, oil, or certain food.

Carboy – a very large glass container protected in metal or basket with soft packing between the glass and basket. It is used for chemicals.

Bundle – various goods packed without a container. A number of small cartons fixed together is also called a bundle.

Marking of the cargo:

Correct and complete marking of packages helps to prevent incorrect handling, accidents, incorrect delivery, losses of weight and volume and Customs fines. Marking must be clear and precise. Its color should stand out clearly from that of the package; it is usually black in color. Alternatively, it may also be applied on adhesive labels. Where possible, black symbols on a white background should be used. Both when the marking is applied directly onto the package and when adhesive labels are used, care must be taken to ensure that marking is applied in a legible and durable manner. Adequate marking is an indispensable component of the package. If the marking is at variance with the details on the shipping documents, objections may be raised by the Customs authorities. If handling marking is inadequate, those parties whose actions during transport, handling or storage of the cargo have caused damage may be excluded from liability. Complete marking must comprise the following three parts: Shipping mark 

	Identification mark: e.g. initial letters of receiver or shipper or of receiver's company name
	Identification number: e.g. receiver's order number
	Total number of items in the complete consignment
	Number of the package in the consignment, e.g. 5/12 or 5 - 12
	Place and port of destination

Information mark

	Country of origin: The country of origin must be stated in accordance with the provisions of the particular countries. Statement of the country of origin is often mandatory. In some cases it is not desired and, if contractually agreed, may even have to be omitted. Failure to comply with such agreements entails a risk of blacklisting.
	Indication of weight of package: from a gross weight of 1000 kg, packages must be marked with details of weight. With regard to ease of transport, handling and storage, the relevant standards also recommend indicating weight from a lower threshold.
	Dimensions of packages: standards specify that dimensions be stated in centimeters.

Handling instructions "Handling marks" help to ensure that greater care is taken with cargo handling. It must be possible to tell, 

	whether the package is sensitive to heat or moisture
	whether it is at risk of breakage
	where the top and bottom are and where the center of gravity is located
	where loading tackle may be slung

The symbols for package handling instructions are internationally standardized in ISO R/780 (International Organization for Standardization) and in DIN 55 402 (DIN, German Institute for Standardization). The symbols must never be omitted as they are self-explanatory and so overcome language problems in international transport operations.

Designation	Symbol	Explanation
Fragile, Handle with care		The symbol should be applied to easily broken cargoes. Cargoes marked with this symbol should be handled carefully and should never be tipped over or slung.
Use no hooks		Any other kind of point load should also be avoided with cargoes marked with this symbol. The symbol does not automatically prohibit the use of the plate hooks used for handling bagged cargo.
Top		The package must always be transported, handled and stored in such a way that the arrows always point upwards. Rolling, swinging, severe tipping or tumbling or other such handling must be avoided. The cargo need not, however, be stored "on top".
Keep away from heat (solar radiation)		Compliance with the symbol is best achieved if the cargo is kept under the coolest possible conditions. In any event, it must be kept away from additional sources of heat. It may be appropriate to enquire whether prevailing or anticipated temperatures may be harmful. This label should also be used for goods, such as butter and chocolate, which anybody knows should not be exposed to heat, in order to prevent losses.
Protect from heat and radioactive sources		Stowage as for the preceding symbol. The cargo must additionally be protected from radioactivity.
Sling here		The symbol indicates merely where the cargo should be slung, but not the method of lifting. If the symbols are applied equidistant from the middle or center of gravity, the package will hang level if the slings are of identical length. If this is not the case, the slinging equipment must be shortened on one side.
Keep dry		Cargoes bearing this symbol must be protected from excessive humidity and must accordingly be stored under cover. If particularly large or bulky packages cannot be stored in warehouses or sheds, they must be carefully covered with tarpaulins.
Center of gravity		This symbol is intended to provide a clear indication of the position of the center of gravity. To be meaningful, this symbol should only be used where the center of gravity is not central. The meaning is unambiguous if the symbol is applied onto two upright surfaces at right angles to each other.
No hand truck here		The absence of this symbol on packages amounts to permission to use a hand truck on them.
Stacking limitation		The maximum stacking load must be stated as "... kg max.". Since such marking is sensible only on packages with little loading capacity, cargo bearing this symbol should be stowed in the uppermost layer.
Clamp here		Stating that the package may be clamped at the indicated point is logically equivalent to a prohibition of clamping anywhere else.
Temperature limitations		According to regulations, the symbol should either be provided with the suffix "...°C" for a specific temperature or, in the case of a temperature range, with an upper ("...°C max.") and lower ("...°C min.") temperature limit. The corresponding temperatures or temperature limits should also be noted on the consignment note.
Do not use forklift truck here		This symbol should only be applied to the sides where the forklift truck cannot be used. Absence of the symbol on other sides of the package amounts to permission to use forklift trucks on these sides.
Electrostatic sensitive device		Contact with packages bearing this symbol should be avoided at low levels of relative humidity, especially if insulating footwear is being worn or the ground/floor is nonconductive. Low levels of relative humidity must in particular be expected on hot, dry summer days and very cold winter days.
Do not destroy barrier		A barrier layer which is (virtually) impermeable to water vapor and contains desiccants for corrosion protection is located beneath the outer packaging. This protection will be ineffective if the barrier layer is damaged. Since the symbol has not yet been approved by the ISO, puncturing of the outer shell must in particular be avoided for any packages bearing the words "Packed with desiccants".
Tear off here		This symbol is intended only for the receiver.

8. The crew of the ship work as a team to see that the passengers, the cargo, and the ship itself arrive at their destination safely and on time. To sail a ship long distances across open water requires great skill and experience. A change in the wind’s strength or direction, or the force of the waves and currents, can put the ship off course. A ship’s officers use equipment and methods developed hundred years ago-as well as modern devices- to tell where their ship is at al times.

There are four basic methods of navigating at sea: piloting, dead reckoning, electronic navigation, celestial navigation.

In piloting, the navigator directs the vessel from one place to another by observing landmarks on the Earth’s surface.

In dead reckoning, the navigator determines a ship’s position by keeping a careful account, or reckoning, of the distance and direction of travel from a known position called the point of departure.

In electronic navigation, the navigator determines the ship’s position with the aid of such devices as radar etc.

In celestial navigating, the navigator finds a ship’s position by observing the sun, moon, planets and stars.

Devices:

A compass to tell direction.

A chronometer to tell the exact time and help determine a ship’s longitude.

A sextant to calculate a ship’s latitude by measuring the angle f the sun or of a star above the horizon.

8. An Officer in charge of the Navigational Watch or Officer of the Watch (OOW) as we all know comprises the Bridge Team. On merchant vessels, the watch duty officer is always accompanied with a look-out who is also a helmsman. In case the officer of the watch is a newly promoted officer, he will be performing his duties on the bridge under the watchful eyes of the Captain.

What is the Officer of the Watch responsibilities?

• The Officer of the Watch is the Master’s representative and responsible for complying and executing the master’s orders.

• The OOW is responsible to the master for:

1. Safe Navigation of the ship

2. Safety of the personnel or crew onboard the ship

3. Safety of the environment and pollution prevention

4. Maintaining the required standards of good seamanship

5. compliance of COLREGS

6. Compliance with bridge standing orders and night orders

7. Keeping a proper look out at all times

• The officer of the watch must be familiar with:

1. Government regulations.

2. International conventions.

3. Bridge Standing Orders.

4. Captain’s standing orders.

• The Officer of the watch is responsible for the safe navigation of the vessel even with the presence of the master on the bridge, until the time the master informs him specifically and in writing that he will take the command or the watch.

• The Officer of the watch should keep his watch on the bridge until properly relieved.

• He shall consult or ask the Master if he is in doubt of any interpretation or regulations or instructions, or if he has any doubts regarding the manner of which he is required to carry out his duties.

These are among the duties of an Officer of the watch. I’d like to point out something more about this matter, which I mostly notice on the bridge.

The role of the Officer of the Watch when the Master takes command of the ship.

Most of the time I’ve noticed that some OOW would simply stand on the radar, drink a cup of coffee, but forgot the most important part of his job. You are on the bridge to check if the captain is giving the right orders on engine speed, rudder command, following the instructions of the VTS, and applying the COLREGS. You are there to check that everything is under control. This also applies when the ship is under pilotage. Remember that the master has a lot of things running over his head. A lot of messages and telexes to send, and to answer. And you are the person that he shall depend on the bridge to achieve the safe navigation of the ship.