Grammar

The Passive Voice ( Страдательный залог)

Simple		Continuous	Perfect
Present	Many criminals are accused every year	An atrocious criminal is being accused now	A criminal has been already accused
Past	A criminal was accused last month	A criminal was being accused when we came in	A criminal had been accused the previous month
Future	A criminal will be accused next month		By the end of the month this criminal will have been accused

1. Passive Voice образуется с помощью вспомогательного глагола to be в соответствующем лице, числе и времени и Past Participle (причастия прошедшего времени) смыслового глагола.

2. Passive Voice употребляется, когда в центре высказывания находится предмет, который подвергается какому-либо воздействию. Лицо, производящeе воздействие, несущественно и потому часто совсем не упоминается. Например:

That crime was detected by professionals. Преступление было расследовано профессионалами.

ПРИМЕЧАНИЕ: В тех случаях, когда необходимо указать лицо, производящие действие, или орудие действия, или материал, из которого сделан предмет, употребляют предлоги by, with, of.

“Sharlock Holms” was created by the famous English writer Conan Doyle.

Criminals were apprehended with a gun.

3. В английском языке страдательный залог употребляется значительно шире, чем в русском языке. Это объясняется тем, что в английском языке в Passive Voice могут употребляться глаголы, принимающие л ю б о е дополнение (прямое, косвенное, предложное), тогда как в русском языке в страдательном залоге употребляются только глаголы, принимающие прямое дополнение.

ПРИМЕЧАНИЕ: Глаголы to report (сообщать), to say, to believe (полагать), to expect (ожидать, предполагать), to know и некоторые другие употребляются в Passive Voice в оборотах с предваряющим it: It is reported that … Сообщают (сообщается), что…, It is said that… Говорят, что…, It is believed that … Полагают, что…, It is expected that… Ожидают, что …, It is known that… Известно, что…. Эти обороты характерны для официальной речи и обычно встречаются в газетных статьях, официальных документах и т. д.

It is known that Bonnie and Clyde were famous robbers.

4. На русский язык английский страдательный залог может переводиться:

а) неопределенно-личными предложениями (чаще всего в тех случаях, когда не упоминается лицо, совершающее действие).

А criminal has just been caught. Только что был пойман преступник.

б) глаголами, оканчивающимися на –ся.

The case are being listened. Дело слушается.

в) при помощи глагола быть и краткой формы причастия смыслового глагола.

When was Police Service created? Когда была создана полицейская служба?

Task 1. Find in the text sentences with Passive construction.

Task 2. Make the following statements in Passive:

1) Sh.Holmes detected many crimes.

2) The British Statesman Sir Robert Peel established the London Police in 1829.

3) The Romans achieved a high level of law enforcement.

4) The witness identifies an offender.

5) The police officer arrested a criminal.

6) The jury accused an offender.

7)An attorney defended an offender.

UNIT 4

Society and Law

Constitutional law

Constitutional law is the branch of the public law of a nation or state which treats of the organization, powers and frame of government, the distribution of political and governmental authorities and functions, the fundamental principles which are to regulate the relations of government and citizen. Modern constitutional law is the offspring of nationalism as well as of the idea that the state must protect central fundamental rights of the individual. As national states have multiplied in number, so have constitutional law. But constitutional law originates today sometimes from non-national sources too, while the protection of individual rights has become the concern also of supranational institutions/

Constitutions and constitutional law.

Every political community, and thus every national state, has a constitution. Constitutions may be written or unwritten; they may be complex or simple. The constitution of a political community may contain more, than the definition of the authorities. It may also include principles that delimit those powers in order to secure right of persons or groups. Today, almost all states have constitutional documents describing the fundamental organs of the state, the ways they should operate, and, usually, the rights they must respect and even sometimes the goals they ought to pursue.

Every state has a constitution, since every state functions on the basis of central rules and principles. The British constitution includes the Bill of Rights (1689), the Act of Settlement (1700-01), the Parliament Act of 1911, the successive Representation of the People acts.

Unitary, federal, and regionalist systems

No modern state can govern a country only from a central point. The affairs of municipalities and rural areas must be left to the administration of local governments. In all modern states there are two levels of government: the central government and the local governments. But in a number of states between the two levels there exists still a third governments of regions. States with two levels of government are called unitary, with three levels federal or “regionalist”.

Classifying state as federal, regionalist, or unitary may be difficult. The United States and Switzerland are clearly federal states, although the role of states and cantons has shrunk much since World War I. Canada is also a federal state. The federal Republic of Germany is federal in all respects. Italy and Spain are states with regional governments. Great Britain and France are unitary states. Northern Ireland had special autonomy within the United Kingdom and Scotland and Wales would have had special autonomy but in referendums their people rejected the devolution plans offered by the British Parliament.

Administrative law

According to Black’s Law Dictionary, administrative law is the body of law created by administrative agencies in the form of rules, regulations, orders, and decisions. Administrative law is the legal framework within which public administration is carried out. Administrative law is of constitutional and political, as well as juridical importance.

There is no universally accepted definition of administrative law. Administrative law is to a large extent complemented by constitutional law. The organization of a national legislature, the structure of the courts, the characteristics of a cabinet, and the role of the head of state are generally regarded as matters of constitutional law, the substantive and procedural provisions relating to central and local governments and judicial review of administration are reckoned matters of administrative law.

The law relating to public health, education, housing, and other public services could be regarded as part of the corpus of administrative law.

Criminal law

Criminal law is the body of law that defines criminal offenses, regulates the apprehension, charging, and trial of suspected persons, and fixes penalties and modes of treatment applicable to convicted offenders.

Criminal law is only one by which societies protect the security of individual interests and assure the survival of the group. There are, the standards of conduct instilled by family, school, and religion; the rules of the office and factory; the regulations of civil life enforced by ordinary police powers; and the sanctions available through tort actions. The distinction between criminal law and tort law is difficult to draw, but in general one may say that a tort is a private injury while a crime is conceived as an offense against the public, although the actual victim may be an individual.