- •English lexicology a course of lectures
- •Introduction
- •1. Lexicology as a branch of linquistics
- •2. Kinds of lexicology
- •3. Links of Lexicology with other branches of Linguistics
- •Lecture 1. Word-meaning
- •1.1. Semantics as a branch of Lexicology studing meanihg
- •1.2. Approaches to the study of meaning
- •1.2.1. Referential approach to meaning
- •1.2.2. Functional approach to meaning
- •1.3. Types of word-meaning
- •1.3.1. Grammatical meaning
- •1.3.2. Lexical meaning
- •1.3.3. Part-of-speech meaning
- •1.3.4 Denotative, significative and connotative meanings
- •1.3.5. Connotative meaning
- •1.3.6. Emotive charge and sociostylistic reference of words
- •1.3.7. Pragmatic meaning
- •1.4. Types of morpheme-meaning
- •1.4.1. Lexical meaning of morphemes
- •1.4.2. Functional or part-of-speech meaning of morphemes
- •1.4.3. Differential meaning of morphemes
- •1.4.4. Distributional meaning of morphemes
- •1.5.2.2. Morphological motivation of words
- •1.5.2.3. Semantic motivation of words
- •Lecture 2. Change of Meaning
- •2.1. Causes of semantic change
- •2.1.1. Extralinguistic causes of semantic change
- •2.1.2. Linguistic causes of semantic change
- •2.2. Nature, results and types of semantic change
- •2.2.1. Similarity of meanings or metaphor
- •2.2.2. Contiguity of meanings or metonymy
- •2.2.3. Types of semantic change without the transfer of name
- •2.2.3.1. Specialization and generalization of meanings
- •2.2.3.2. Amelioration and pejoration of meaning
- •2.2.3.3. Hyperbole, litotes, irony, euphemism, disphemism, taboo
- •Lecture 3. Polysemy
- •3.1. The notion of polysemy
- •3.2. Approaches to polysemy
- •3.2.1. Diachronic approach to polysemy
- •3.2.2. Synchronic approach to polysemy
- •Lecture 4. Homonymy
- •4.1. Definition of homonymy
- •4.2. Homonymy of words and homonymy of word-forms
- •4.3. Classification of homonyms
- •4.3.1. Full and partial homonymy
- •4.3.2. Classification of homonyms by the type of meaning
- •4.3.3. Classification of homonyms by the sound-form, graphic form and meaning
- •4.4. Sources of homonymy
- •4.4.1. Diverging meaning development
- •4.4.2. Converging sound development
- •4.5. Differentiation of polysemy and homonymy
- •Lecture 5. Word-meaning in syntagmatics and paradigmatics
- •5.1. Definition of syntagmatics and paradigmatics
- •5.2. Conceptual or semantic fields
- •5.3. Hyponimic (or hierarchical) structures and lexico-semantic groups
- •5.4. Synonymy and antonymy
- •Lecture 6. Word-structure
- •6.1. Segmentation of words into morphemes
- •6.2. Classification of morphemes
- •6.3. Procedure of morphemic analysis
- •6.4. Morphemic types of words
- •6.5. Derivative structure of words
- •7.3. Composition or compounding
- •7.4. Conversion
- •7.5. Shortening and abbreviation
- •7.5.1. Shortening or contraction
- •7.5.2. Abbreviation
- •7.6. Back-formation or reversion
- •8. Word-groups and phraseological units
- •8.1. Lexical and grammatical valency
- •8.2. Definition of phraseological units
- •8.3. Classification of phraseological units
- •Literature
- •Contents
- •Introduction 1
1.3.7. Pragmatic meaning
The term “pragmatics” stems from the Greek word prágma “deed, action”. It studies functioning of linguistic signs in speech. Pragmatic meaning as a component of lexical meaning is the attitude of speakers, fixed the language practice, to the linguistic sign they use in speech and its corresponding influence on the interlocutors. Pragmatic meaning depends upon certain sociolinguistic parameters of interaction-communication.
1.4. Types of morpheme-meaning
The morpheme is the smallest two-facet language unit possessing both a sound-form and meaning. One of the semantic features of some morphemes which distinguishes them from words is that they do not possess grammatical meaning. If we compare the word child and the morpheme child- occurred in the words childhood and childish we cannot find in this morpheme the grammatical meaning of case and number observed in the word child. So morphemes are regarded as devoid of grammatical meaning.
1.4.1. Lexical meaning of morphemes
Many English words consist of a single root-morpheme. So when we say that most morphemes possess lexical meaning we imply mainly the root-morphemes in such words. It may be easily observed that the lexical meaning of the word child and the lexical meaning of the root morpheme child- in the words childhood and childish is almost the same.
Lexical meaning of affixal morphemes is of a more generalized character. For example, the suffix –er carries the meaning of ‘the agent of the action’.
Just as in words lexical meaning in morphemes may also be analyzed into denotational and connotational components. The connotational component of meaning may be found not only in root-morphemes but also in affixational morphemes. Comparing the derivational morphemes with the same denotational meaning we see that they may differ in connotation only.
For example, the morphemes -ly, -like, -ish have the denotational meaning of similarity in the words womanly, womanlike, womanish. However, the connotational component in these words differs and ranges from the positive evaluation in -ly (womanly) to the derogatory in -ish (womanish).
Stylistic reference may also be found in morphemes. For example, the stylistic value of such derivational morphemes as –oid (spheroid, –itude (exactitude) ) and –iroo (buddiroo) may be clearly perceived as, respectively, scientific, bookish and colloquial or even slangy.
1.4.2. Functional or part-of-speech meaning of morphemes
Root-morphemes do not possess part-of-speech meaning. In derivational morphemes the lexical and part-of-speech meanings may be so blended as to be almost inseparable. For example, in the derivational morpheme –er (reader) the lexical meaning of the ‘agent’ is as just clearly perceived as its part-of-speech meaning of the ‘noun’.
In some cases, however, either lexical or functional meaning may prevail.
1.4.3. Differential meaning of morphemes
Differential meaning is the semantic component that serves to distinguish one word from all others containing identical morphemes. In words consisting of two or more morphemes one of the constituent morphemes always has differential meaning. For example, in such words as bookshelf, bookcase, bookshop the second morphemes have differential meanings that serve to these words from each other.
Denotational and differential meanings are not mutually exclusive. However, there are some cases when it is difficult or even impossible to assign any denotative meaning to the morpheme, as is the case with the morpheme cran- in the word cranberry, though its differential meaning is felt in comparison with words blackberry, gooseberry, strawberry.