2.1.2. Linguistic causes of semantic change

The linguistic causes are factors acting within the language system. They deal with changes due to the constant interdependence of vocabulary units in language and speech, such as differentiation between synonyms, changes taking place in connection with ellipsis, and with fixed contexts, changes resulting from the ambiguity in certain contexts and some other cases.

Ellipsis as a linguistic cause of semantic change. Semantic changes due to ellipsis may be observed when the meaning of one word is transferred to another because they habitually occur together in speech. In a phrase made up of two words one of them is omitted and its meaning is transferred to its partner. For example, the verb to starve (in OE steorfan) had the meaning ‘to die’ and was habitually used in collocation with the word hunger (ME sterven of hunger). In the 16^th century the verb itself acquired the meaning ‘to die of hunger’.

Discrimination of synonyms as a linguistic cause of semantic change. Let us take, for example, the word land. In OE land meant both ‘solid part of earth’s surface’ and ‘the territory of a nation’. When in the ME period the word country was borrowed from OFr (contree) as its synonym, the meaning of the word land was altered and ‘the territory of a nation’ came to be denoted mainly by borrowed word country.

Linguistic analogy as a cause of semantic change. If one of the members of a synonymic set acquires a new meaning, other members of this set change their meanings and by analogy acquire the same meaning, too. For example, in the set of synonyms to the notion catch ‘хватать’ – grasp and get, the dominant of this synonymic set catch acquired the new meaning ‘to understand’; then the other two synonyms grasp and get developed this new meaning, too.

2.2. Nature, results and types of semantic change

Various changes of word-meanings can be classified (1) according to the causes that bring about changes of meaning – a sociolinguistic classification, (2) according to the nature of semantic changes – a psychological classification, and (3) according to the results of semantic changes – a logical classification.

We assume that causes, nature and results of semantic changes should be viewed as three essentially different but inseparable aspects of one and the same linguistic phenomenon as any change of meaning may be investigated from the point of view of these three aspects.

In general, a necessary condition of any semantic change is some connection or association between the old meaning and the new one. As a rule, there are two kinds of association involved in various semantic changes, namely: (1) similarity of meanings (or metaphor) and (2) contiguity of meanings (or metonymy).

2.2.1. Similarity of meanings or metaphor

The process of development of a new meaning is termed transference of meaning. Two types of transference are distinguishable depending on the two types of logical associations underlying the semantic process. These two types of association involved in various semantic changes are similarity and contiguity of meanings. In this case we observe the transfer of the name of one object to another.

Similarity of meanings or metaphor may be described as a semantic process of associating two referents, one of which resembles the other. For example, the word hand acquired in the 16^th century the meaning of ‘a pointer of a clock’ because of the real similarity of one of the functions performed by the hand – to point at something and the function of the clockpointer.

A metaphor is a transfer of name based on the association of similarity and thus is actually a hidden comparison. It presents a method of description which likens one thing to another by referring to it as if it were some other one. A cunning person, for instance, may be referred to as a fox. In this case we observe a supposed similarity.

Metaphors may be based upon various types of similarity:

• the similarity of shape, for instance, the head of a cabbage, the teeth of a saw;

• the of similarity of shape may be supported by the similarity of function, for instance, the head of a college;

• the of similarity of shape and function may be supported by the similarity of position, for instance, the foot of a mountain, or by the similarity of behaviour and function, for instance, bookworm.

Anthropomorphic metaphors are among the most frequent, for instance, in the phrase the leg of the table the metaphor is motivated by the similarity of the lower part of the table and the human limb in position and, partly, in shape and function. The way in which the words denoting parts of the human body are made to express a variety of meanings may be illustrated by the following examples: arms and mouth of a river, eye of a needle, tongue of a bell, etc.

Numerous cases of metaphoric transfer are based upon the analogy between duration of time and space; for instance, long distance :: long speech, a short path :: a short time.

The transfer of space relations upon psychological and mental notions may be exemplified by words and expressions concerned with understanding, for instance, to catch or to grasp an idea, to throw light upon. Here we observe the metaphoric change from the concrete to the abstract.

Another subgroup of metaphors comprises transitions of proper names into common ones; for instance, an Adonis, a Don Juan, a Vandal.

Sometimes it is the similarity of quality that underlies the metaphor; for instance, a warm or cold voice.

It is also usual to perceive similarity between colours and emotions.