Шпоры по стилистике английского языка

4. Stylistic Differentiation of the vocab.

The word-stock of any given lang can be divided into 3 groups, differing each other by the sphere of use (1- neutral, possessing no styl connotation & suitable for any communicative situation, 2-literary & 3- colloquial words)

Lit-ry & col-al contain a number of subgroups having some common property. Lit-ry words are more or less stable. Col-l has a lively spoken character, is unstable and fleeting. The neutral has a universal ch-r.Its unrestricted in use. It can be employed in all spheresof human activity.it can be met at any style of speech. They have no local cvh-r, no emotive colouring.Lit-ry & col-l can be general & special.

Special lit-ry:1 terms, words denoting objects, humanities, techniques,2 archaism-denoting historical phenomena ,which are no more in use(vassal)=historical words:poetic words(17-19 cen=steed =horse) & archaic words(nay=no)

Special subgroups of col-l words:

Slang-used by most speakers in informal com-n,are highly emotive & expressive( pretty girl)

Jargonisms-are close to slang, also expressive & emotive, but used by limited groups of ppl

Vulgarism-words with a strong emotive meaning, normally avoided in polite con-n

Dialectal words are normative & of any stylistic meaning in regional dialects, but used outside of them, carry a strong flavour of the locality where they belong

2. The notion of the functional style.Classification.

Fun style(by Galperin) is a system of coordinated, interrelated & interconditioned language means intended to fulfil a specific function of com-n & aiming at a definite effect. Classification:

1 official style, represented in all kinds of of documents.

2 scientific, found in articles, brochures, monographs & other academic publications

3 publicist, covering such genres as essay, public speeches.

4 newspaper style, observed in the majority of materials printed in newspapers

5 belles-lettres style, embracing numerous genres of creative writing. it fulfils the aesthetic function , which fact singles this style out of others & gives grounds to recognize its systematic uniqueness.

Each of the style has 2 forms: written & oral.

Only recently, most style class included:

Poetic style- deals with verbal forms specific for poetry.

Oratoric style- in ancient Greece was instrumental in the creation of “Rhetoric”.

All the mentioned styles are specified within the literary type of the language. Their functioning is characterized by the international approach of the speaker towards the choice of lang-e means suitable for a particular com-ve situation & the official, formal nature of the latter.

37. Stylistics of the author & of the reader. The notions of encoding & decoding.

Decoding stylistics (DS) – the most recent trend in stylistics that employs the knowledge of such sciences as information theory, psychology, linguistics, literary theory, history of art, etc.

DS tries to regard the esthetic value of a text based on the interaction of specific textual elements, stylistic devices & compositional structure in delivering the authors message. This method does not consider the styl. function of any styl. feature separately but as a part of a whole text. DS helps the reader in understanding of a lit. work by explaining (decoding) the info that may be hidden from immediate view. The term “DS” came from the application of the theory of information to ling-cs (Jackobson, Arnold, Lotman…). The process is presented in the following way: the writer receives dif. Info from the outside world. He processes this info & recreates it in his own images. The process of internalizing of the outside info & translating it into his own imagery – encoding.

Encoder(writer) sends the info to recipient (addressee, reader) & the reader is supposed to decode the info. This process is not easy. A lit. work on its way to the reader encounters many obstacles – social, historical, temporal, cultural… Readers & authors may be separ-ed by hist.epoch, soc. conventions, religious & pol.views, cult. & national traditions. The author & the reader may be dif. in emotional, intellectual plan. Many lit.works are roo sophisticated, they require of the reader a wide educational background, knowledge of history, mythology, philosophy.

38. Main concepts of DS analisys and types of foregrounding.

DS investigates the same levels as linguasty-cs – phonetic, graphical, lexical, grammatical. The basic difference: it studies expressive means of each level not as isolated devices but as a part of the whole text on lengthy segments of text (from paragraph to the level of the whole work).

Ideas, events, characters, author’s attitudes are encoded in the text through the lan-ge. The reader is to perceive & encode these things by reading the text. DS is the reader's sty-cs that is engaged in recreating the author's vision of the world with the help of concrete text elements & their interaction through the text.

One of the fundamental concepts of DS is foregrounding (F-g). The notion of it was suggested by scholars of the Prague linguistic circle at the beg. of the 20^th c-ry. Among its members were Trubetskoy, Jacobson, Skalichka, etc. F-g means a specific role that some lang-ge items play in a cert.context when the reader's attention cannot but be drawn to them. In a lit.text such items become styl-ly marked features that build up its stylistic func-n.

There are cert.modes of lang-ge use & arrangement to achieve the effect of F-g.it may be based on dif types of deviation, redundancy, unexpected comb-n of lang-ge units.

Arnold: the effect of F-g can be achieved in a peculiar way by the absence of any expressive or descriptive features when they are expected in cert.types of texts (e.g. the absence of rhythmical arrangement in verse)

39. The notions of convergence & defeated expectancy

Convergence denotes a comb-n of stylistic devices promoting the same idea, emotion or motive. Any type of expr. means will make sense styl-ly when treated as a part of a bigger unit, the context, or the whole text. It means that there is no immediate dependence between a cert. styl. device and a definite stylistic fun-n.

A stylistic device is not attached to this or that stylistic effect. Therefore a hyperbole, for ex., may provide any number of effects: tragic, comical, pathetic or grotesque. Inversion may give the narration a highly elevated tone or an ironic ring of parody.

This «chameleon» quality of a stylistic device enables the author to apply dif. devices for the same purpose. The use of more than one type of expr. means in close succession is a powerful technique to support the idea that carries paramount importance in the author's view. Such redundancy ensures the delivery of the message to the reader.

Defeated exp-cy (DE) is a principle considered by some linguists (Jacobson) as the basic principle of a styl. func-n. The linear org-n of the text mentally prepares the reader for the logical devel-t of ideas. The normal arrangement of the text both in form and content is based on its predict-y which means that the appearance of any element in the text is prepared by the preceding arrangement and choice of elements, e.g. the subject of the sentence will normally be foll. by the predicate, you can supply parts of certain set phrases or collocation after you see the first element, etc.

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An example from O. Wilde's play «The Importance of Being Earnest” illustrates how predictability of the structure plays a joke on the speaker:

Miss Fairfax, ever since I met you I have admired you more than any girl... I have met... since I met you. (Wilde)

The speaker is compelled to unravel the structure almost against his will, and the pauses show he is caught in the trap of the structure unable either to stop or say anything new. Without predict-y there would be no coherence and no decoding. At the same time stylistically distinctive features are often based on the deviation from the norm and predict-y. An appearance of an unpred-le element may upset the process of decoding. Even though not completely unpred-le a styl. device is still a low expectancy element and it is sure to catch the reader's eye. The decoding process meets an obstacle, which is given the full force of the reader's attention

DF may come up on any level of the lang-ge. It may be an author's coinage with an unusual suffix; it may be a case of semantic incongruity or gram.transposition. Devices that are based on DE : pun, zeugma, paradox, oxymoron, irony, anti-climax, etc. DE is partic-ly effective when the preceding narration has a high degree of orderly organized elements that create a maximum degree of predictability and logical arrangement of the contextual linguistic material.

Продолжение 37

All these factors preclude easy decoding & show how dif. it is to the message to reach the reader. The message encoded & sent may differ from the mes-ge received after decoding.

So the result may be a failure on both sides. The reader may complain that he could not understand what the author wanted to say, while the author may resent being misinterpreted. So, the DS deals with the notions of stylistics of the author & stylistics of the reader.

Продолжение 38(1)

DS laid down a few principle methods that ensure the effect of F-g. They are: convergence of expressive means, irradiation, defeated expectancy, coupling, semantic fields, semi-marked structures.

Convergence – denotes a combin-n of styl.devices promoting the same idea, emotion or motive; any type of exp.means will make sense styl-ly when treated as a part of the whole unit (the context, the whole text). The use of more than 1 type of exp.means in close succession – a powerful technique to support the idea that is of particular imp-ce to the author.

Defeated E-y. The linear org-n of the text mentally prepares the reader for the consequential & log-l devel-nt of ideas. The normal arrangement of the text is based on its predictability (the appearance of any element in the text is prepared by the producing arrangement & choice of elements). DE may be found on any ling.level. It may be expressed by unusual suffix, zeugma, oxymoron, paradox….

Coupling is based on the affinity of elements that occupy similar position thoughtout the text. C. provides cohesion, consistency & unity of the text form & content. It may be found on any ling.level. The affinity may be phonetic (alliteration, assonance, rhyme, rhythm..) & semantic(use of synonyms, antonyms, root repetition, paraphrase..) & structural(all kinds of parallelism, syntactical repetition- anadiplosis, framing… ).

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Semantic field. It identifies lex. elements in text segments and the whole work that provide its thematic and compositional cohesion. Lex. ties relevant to this kind of analysis will include synony­mous and antonymous relations, morphological derivation, relations of inclusion (various types of hyponymy and entailment), com­mon semes in the denotative or connotative meanings of different words.

Semi-marked structures is associ­ated with the deviation from the grammatical and lexical norm. It's an extreme case of defeated expectancy much stronger than low ex­pectancy encountered in a paradox or anti-climax, the unpredictable element is used contrary to the norm so it produces a very strong emphatic impact.

40. The notions of coupling, sem.field, semi-marked structures

While convergence and defeated expectancy both focus the reader's attention on the particularly signif. parts of the text coupling (C) deals with the arrangement of textual elements that provide the unity & cohesion of the whole structure. C. is more than many other devices connected with the level of the text. This method of text analysis helps to decode ideas, their interaction, inner semantic & structural links of the text.

C. is based on the affinity of elements that occupy similar po­sitions throughout the text. C. provides cohesion & unity of the text form and content.C. can be found on any level of the language, so the affinity may be different in nature: it may be phonetic (alliteration, assonance, paronomasia, rhyme, rhythm, meter), structural (all kinds of parallelism and syntac­tical repetition-anadiplosis, anaphora, framing, chiasmus, epiphora,etc.) & semantic (the use of synonyms and antonyms, both direct and contextual, root repetition, paraphrase, sustained metaphor, semantic fields, recurrence of images, connota­tions or symbols).

Semantic field (SF) is a method of decoding stylistics closely connected with coupling. It identifies lex.l elements in text segments and the whole work that provide its thematic and compositional cohesion. To reveal this sort of cohesion decoding must carefully observe not only lex. and synonymous repet-n but sem. affinity which finds expression in cases of lexico-semantic variants, connotations and associations aroused by a specific use or distribution of lexical units, thematic pertinence of seemingly unrelated words.

Продолжение 40(1)

SF shows how cohesion is achieved on a less explicit level sometimes called the vertical context. Lex.l elements of this sort are charged with implications and adherent meanings that establish invisible links throughout the text and create a kind of semantic background so that the work is laced with certain kind of imagery.

Lex. ties relevant to SF will include synony­mous and antonymous relations, morphological derivation, relations of inclusion (various types of hyponymy and entailment), com­mon semes in the denotative or connotative meanings of different words.

Semi-marked structures (SS) are a variety of defeated expectancy associ­ated with the deviation from the gram.l and lex. norm. It's an extreme case of defeated expectancy much stronger than low ex­pectancy encountered in a paradox or anti-climax, the unpredictable element is used contrary to the norm so it produces a very strong emphatic impact. For ex.,

The stupid heart that will not learn

The everywhere of grief.

The word everywhere is not a noun, but an adverb and cannot be used with an article and a preposition, besides grief is an abstract noun that cannot be used as an object with a noun denoting location. However the lines make sense for the poet & readers who interpret them as the poetic equivalent of the author's overwhelming feeling of sadness and dejection.

.

Продолжение 40(2)

Lex. deviation from the norm usually means breaking the laws of sem. compatibility and lex. valency. Arnold considers SS as a part of tropes based on the unexpected or unpredictable relations established between objects & phenomena by the author

If you had to predict what elements would combine well with such words and expressions as to try one's best to..., to like ... you would hardly come up with such incompatible combinations:

She ... tried her best to spoil the party. (Erdrich)

I liked the ugly little college... (Wnugh)

Such combination of lex. units in our everyday speech is rare. However in spite of their apparent incongrtiily SS of both types arc widely used in lit-ry texts that arc full of sophisticated correlations which help to read sense into most unpredictable combinations of lex. units.

1. St-s is a The subject of stylistics. Its connection with other disciplines.

branch of general linguistics. It has mainly with two tasks: St-s – is regarded as a lang-ge science which deals with the results of the act of communication. There are 2 basic objects of st-s: - stylistic devices and figures of speech; - functional styles. Branches of st-s: - Lexical st-s – studies functions of direct and figurative meanings, also the way contextual meaning of a word is realized in the text. L.S. deals with various types of connotations – expressive, evaluative, emotive; neologisms, dialectal words and their behavior in the text. - Grammatical st-s – is subdivided into morphological and syntactical. Morph-l s. views stylistic potential of gram-l categories of dif-t parts of speech. Potential of the number, pronouns… - Syntactical s. studies syntactic, expressive means, word order and word combinations, dif-t types of sentences and types of syntactic connections. Also deals with origin of the text, its division on the paragraphs, dialogs, direct and indirect speech, the connection of the sentences, types of sentences. - Phonostylistics – phonetical organization of prose and poetic texts. Here are included rhythm, rhythmical structure, rhyme, alliteration, assonance and correlation of the sound form and meaning. Also studies deviation in normative pronunciation. - Functional S (s. of decoding) – deals with all subdivisions of the language and its possible use (newspaper, colloquial style). Its object - correlation of the message and communicative situation.

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- Individual style study –studies the style of the author. It looks for correlations between the creative concepts of the author and the language of his work. - st-s of encoding - The shape of the info (message) is coded and the addressee plays the part of decoder of the information which is contained in message. The problems which are connected with adequate reception of the message without any loses (deformation) are the problems of st-s of encoding. St-s is not equal to linguistics science, such as phonetics, linguistics disciplines – lexicology, morphology, syntax because they are level disciplines as they treat only one linguistic level and st-s investigates the questions on all the levels and dif-t aspects of the texts in general. The smallest unit of lang-ge is the phoneme. Several phonemes combined make a unit of a higher level – morpheme (morphemic level). One or more morphemes makes a word, a lexeme (lexical level). One or more than one words make an utterance, a sentence (sentence level). St-s must be subdivided into separate, independent branches – stylistic phonetics, Stylistic morphology, Stylistic lexicology, Stylistic syntax Whatever level we take, st-s is describes not what is in common use, but what is specific in this or that respect, what differentiates one sublanguage from others. General (non-stylistic) phonetics investigates the whole articulatory - audial system of language. Stylistic ph-cs describes variants of pronunciation occuring in dif-t types of speech. Special attention is also paid to prosodic features of prose and poetry.

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General (non-stylistic) morphology treats morphemes and gram-l meanings expressed by them in lan-ge in general, without regard to their stylistic value. Stylistic mor-gy is interested in gram-l forms and gram-l meanings that are peculiar to particular sublanguages, explicity or implicity comparing them with the neutral ones common to all the sublanguages. Lexicology deals with stylistic classification (differentiation) of the vocabulary that form a part of st-s (stylistics lexicology). In stylistic lexicology each units are studied separately, instead of as a whole text (group of words, word classification). General syntax treats word combinations and sentences, analyzing their str-res and stating what is permissible and what is inadmissible in constructing correct utterances in the given lan-ge. Stylistic syntax shows what particular constructions are met with in various types of speech, what syntactical str-res are style forming (specific) in the sublanguages in question. Semantic level – connected with meaning

18. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices.

The notion of harmony, euphony, rhythm and some other sound phenomena contribute to some general acoustic sound.

Onomatopoeia (звукоподражание)- is a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature. E.g.: hiss, grumble, sizzle, murmur, bump.wind, sea, thunder,by things like machines tools,by people (laughter, cough),by animal.

There exist: 1) Direct onomatopoeia: in words that imitate natural sound (ding-dong, buzz, hiss, roar, ping-pong, mew, cock-a-doodle-doo)2) Indirect: a combination of sounds, the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense (And the silken sat uncertain, rusting of each purple curtain). Poetry abounds in some specif. devices of sound instrument. The most frequent of them are: Alliteration – the repetition of the same construction at the beginning of words.It’s often used in newspaper headlines, proverbs, set expressions. (As blind as bat; Pride and prejudice. Sense and sensibility. The school of scandal. Silken set uncertain, rustling of each purple curtain.)The Assonance – the repetition of similar vowels usually in stressed syllables. (Nor soul flesh now more than flesh helps soul).They both produce the effect of euphony (афония) – a sense of ease and comfort, a pleasing effect of pronouncing and hearing.

The opposite process is cacophony – a sense of strain and discomfort in pronouncing and hearing.Rhyme – one of the properties of poetry, which is the repetition of the same sound, identical/similar, usually at the end

of 2 or more lines. We normally distinguish b/n:full rhyme (I-sky, night-right),incomplete rhyme (fresh-press),compound rhymes (spirit- ?),eye-rhymes (visible, but not pronounced): (love-

Продолжение 18(1)

prove),masculine rhymes (monosyllabic words): e.g. down-town – and are standing on the last line or , or bisyllabic words accented on the last syllables: domain-remain; mouth-south. ,feminine rhyme (words are accented on the last but one syllable: error-terror)

1.The rhyming patterns are shown with the help of letters, e.g. couplets. When the last word of the 2 successive lines are rhymea: a a b b

2.Triple (dactylic) rhymes: a a a, based on 3-syllable words. 1 syllable stressed, 2 unstressed

3.There exist cross (quatrain) rhymes: a b a b

4.framing (rheme) rhymes: abba – frame

5.internal rhyme: the rhyming word is placed not at the end of the line, but within rhymes.

Functions of rhyme:1) to signalize the end of line and mark the arrangement of lines into stanzas (4ростишие) 2) rhythm becomes evident because of rhyme3) the ends receive greater prominent

Poetic rhythm – r. is created by the regular recurrence of (un)stressed syllables of equal poetic lines. The regular alterations of (un)stressed syllables from a unit which is a foot.

There are 5 basic metrical feet:1)iambus (ямб): the 2^nd syllable is stressed (The flower / that smiles / today / tomorrow / dies.),2)Trochee (хорей): every first syllable of the two is stressed. (Who shall that fortune 3)dactyl (дактиль): the 1^st of the 3 is stressed.4) amphibrach (амфибрахий): the middle of the 3 is stressed.5)anapaest (анапест): the last of the 3 is stressed (There is guilt in the sound, there’s

Продолжение 18(2)

guilt in …)The repetition of the units of the meter or feet makes verse. The number of feet in a line is different in different poetic words. The length of line is usually indicated in the Greek terms: a 2-foot line

– dimeter a 3 foot line – trimester, 4 - tetrameter, 5 - pentameter, 6 -nexameter,7- hectometer.8 - octometer

Sonnets were all written in 14 lines (first by Ptrarka) iambic – pentameter,ababcdcdefef – 99

Ballads are usually written in iambic tetrameter (4столб. ямб)

In the modern advertising, mass media and creative prose sound is foregrouded through the change its accepted graphical representation. The international violation of the graphical shape of word or word combination used to reflect its authentic pronunciation is called a graphon.

Introduced into E. novels and journalism in the 18 c. means of supplying info about speaker’s orogin , social and educational background, physical and emotional conduction, etc.sellybrated,,illygitment

Graphons are also good at conveing atmosphere of authentic life communication. We have such clichés in communication as: gotta, wonna, gimme, lemme, willi.

It becomes popular with advertisers (Pik-wik – Pick quick; Rite Aid)

There also exist, different forms of foreground :capitalization,italics,spacing of graphemes:

hyphenation ( через дефис, с пробелом) ,multiplication ( 1 and the same letter is written sev. times)A special trend – graphical imagism (help.hepl.help)

Stylistics

1.The subject of stylistics,other disciplines.

2. The notion of a functional style.

Classification of functional style.

3. The notion of an idiolect, an individual

style, registers of speech.

4. Stylistic differentiation of the English voc.

5.The notion of a term , its characteristics

and stylistic functions.cientific prose.

6.The newspaper style, its varieties,

its distinction from the publicist style.

7.The style of official documents.

8.Main peculiarities of the publicist style.

9.Peculiarities of belle-lettres style, .

10.Archaisms and their stylistic functions.

11 .Peculiarities of poetic and highly literary words.

12.Differences between foreign words and barb.

13.Main characteristics of slang.

14.Professional and social jargonisms .

15.Place and role of dialectal words.

16.Literary coinages and neologisms.

17.Lexical meanings of a word.

18.Phonetic expressive means and SD.

19.Graphical stylistic means, graphons.

20.The notion of a metaphor, .

21.Oxymoron and its types.

22.Antonomasia and its kinds.

23.Metonymy and varieties.

24. Stylistic usage of polysemy.pun and zeugma.

25.Epithets and their varieties.

26.Simile, its difference from a traditional comparison.

27.Overstatement and understatement

28.Periphrasis and its kinds. Euphemistic periphrasis

29.Types of lexical repetitions

30.Types of syntactic repetitions

31.Syntactic stylistic devices based on parallelism.

32.Stylistic devices based on juxtaposition.

33.Stylistic usage of proverbs, sayings, allusions, citations.

34.Stylistic peculiarities of oral speech, syntactical SD.

35.Stylistic use of interrogative and negative constructions.

36. SD based on special arrangement of the parts of an utterance.

37.Stylistics of the author and of the reader.encoding and decoding.

38.Main concepts of decoding stylistic analysis and types of foregrounding.

39.The notions of convergence, and defeated expectancy.

40.The notions of coupling, semantic field , semi-marked structures.