- •L.M. Takumbetоvа english lexicology preface
- •1. Morphological and Derivational Structure of Words.........................................57
- •Abbreviations and symbols
- •Introduction lexicology as a branch of linguistics.
- •Its subject matter and objectives
- •1. The Subject Matter of Lexicology.
- •2. The Theoretical and Practical Value of Lexicology
- •Questions and Tasks
- •2. The Problem of Word Definition
- •3. Types of Nomination and Motivation of Lexical Units
- •4. The Notion of Lexeme. Variants of Words
- •Questions and Tasks
- •Chapter 2 semasiology. The problem of meaning
- •1. Referential and Functional Approaches to Meaning
- •2. Types of Meaning
- •3. The Semantic Structure of Words. Polysemy
- •4. Сauses, Types and Results of Semantic Change
- •Questions and Tasks
- •Exercises
- •I. Which of the following words are monosemantic (use a dictionary)?
- •II. Group together the following pairs of words according to the lsVs they represent. Use dictionaries if necessary.
- •III. Define the meanings of the italicized words in the following sentences. Say how meanings of the same word are associated one with another.
- •IV. Explain the logical associations in the meanings of the same words in the following word combinations. Define the type of transference which has taken place.
- •V. Comment on the change of meanings in the italicized words.
- •Chapter 3 english vocabulary as a system
- •1. Semantic Classes of Lexemes in the Lexico-semantic
- •System of the English Language
- •2. Synonymy
- •3. Antonymy
- •4. Homonymy
- •The Origin of Homonyms in the English Language
- •Questions and Tasks
- •Exercises
- •I. Classify the following words into logical groups on the principle of hyponymy.
- •II. Arrange the following lexemes into three lexico-semantic groups - feelings, parts of the body, education.
- •III. Prove that the following sets of words are synonyms (use dictionaries).
- •IV. Find the dominant synonym in the following synonymic sets. Explain your choice.
- •V. Find antonyms for the words given below.
- •VI. A) Find the homonyms proper for the following words; give their Russian equivalents.
- •VI. Match the italicized words with the phonetics.
- •Chapter 4 morphological structure of english words and word formation
- •1. Morphological and Derivational Structure of Words
- •2. Аffixation
- •Clаssification of Prefixes
- •Classification of Suffixes
- •3. Conversion
- •Patterns of Semantic Relations by Conversion
- •Basic Criteria of Sеmantic Derivation within Conversion Pairs
- •4. Word-Composition (Compounding)
- •Classifications of Compound Words
- •Meaning and Motivation in Compound Words
- •Historical Changes of Compounds
- •5. Minor Types of Word-Formation
- •Questions and tasks
- •Exercises
- •I. A) Give examples of nouns with the following suffixes; state which of the suffixes are productive.
- •II. Explain the etymology and productivity of the affixes given below. Say what parts of speech they form.
- •III. In the following examples the italicized words are formed from the same root by means of different affixes. Translate these derivatives into Russian and explain the difference in meaning.
- •IV. Find cases of conversion in the following sentences.
- •V. Explain the semantic correlations within the following pair of words.
- •VI. Identify the compounds in the word-groups below. Say as much as you can about their structure and semantics.
- •VII. Match the following onomatopoeic words with the names of referents producing the sounds they denote in brackets.
- •VIII. Define the particular type of world-building process by which the following words were formed and say as much as you can about them.
- •Chapter 5 word-groups and phraseological units
- •1. Lexical Valency and Collocability
- •2. Criteria of phraseological units
- •3. Classifications of phraseological units
- •4. Origin of phraseological units
- •Questions and tasks
- •Exercises
- •I. What is the source and meaning of the following idioms?
- •II. Explain whether the semantic changes in the following units are complete or partial.
- •III. Give Russian equivalents of the following phraseological units from the list below.
- •IV. Give the proverbs from which the following phraseological units have developed.
- •V. Match the beginning of the proverb in the left-hand corner with its ending in the right-hand corner.
- •Chapter 6 etymological background of the english vocabulary
- •1. What Is Etymology?
- •2. Native English Vocabulary
- •3. Loan Words and Their Role in the Formation of the English Vocabulary
- •4. Assimilation of Borrowings
- •5. Degree of Assimilation and Factors Determining It
- •5. Impact of Borrowings on the English Language System
- •Quesions and Tasks
- •Exercises
- •I. Subdivide the following words of native origin into a) Indo-European, b) Germanic, c) English proper.
- •II. Distribute the following Latin borrowings into three groups according to the time of borrowing.
- •III. Find the examples of Scandinavian borrowings in the sentences given below. How can they be identified?
- •IV. Point out whether the italicized words in the sentences given below are Norman or Parisian French borrowings. How can they be identified?
- •V. Explain the etymology of the italicized words (native English and borrowings). Use etymological dictionaries if necessary.
- •VIII. Think of 10-15 examples of Russian borrowings in English and English borrowings in Russian. Literary sources
- •II. Optional
- •Dictionaries
- •Internet sources
5. Impact of Borrowings on the English Language System
As a result of regular contacts with unprecedented number of languages and cultures, the English language was replenished by a great number of lexical items. Effects of borrowing are observed in both qualitative and quantitative changes in the English vocabulary system. Over 120 languages are on record as sources of its present-day vocabulary, and the locations of contact are found all over the world [Crystal 1995:126]. As it was mentioned above loan words constitute about 70% of the English word-stock and refer to variegated areas of human life, such as nature, social, political life, industrial products, inventions, new technologies, culture, education, etc.
Borrowing is one of the mighty sources which serves the demands of nomination when a speech community enlarges its world outlook coming in contact with other speech communities, from which they learn about some new things along with their nominations, thus borrowing fills the nominative gaps of the language.
Borrowing promoted enlarging of lexical groups, especially synonyms, thus enriching the English word stock, contributing to its lexico-semantic system and means of expression. A loan word could oust its English synonym as it happened when the Scandinavian word take ousted the OE synonym niman. But in most cases native and borrowed synonyms co-exist, differentiating meanings of words and enriching the language. One can judge how borrowing enlarged synonymic sets by the example of the synonymic set with the dominant see, which includes verbs behold, descry, espy, view, survey, contemplate, observe, notice, remark, note, discern, perceive. Of these verbs only see и behold are native English, others are French and Latin borrowings. Native and borrowed synonyms differ in their stylistic reference. Native English lexemes are neutral or informal; the borrowed ones mostly belong to the formal register.
Borrowings influenced the semantic structure of many lexemes. In some cases due to borrowing of synonyms many native words or earlier borrowed ones narrowed their meanings or sphere of application as the word land after borrowing the word country from French, or the word stool, which in Old English denoted any piece of furniture used for sitting, but its meaning narrowed under the influence of the French Loan chair.
A great number of loan words influenced the morphological structure of English words and word-formation. In the course of time in borrowed words affixes (re-, pre-, in-, -able, -ism, etc.) began to be distinguished and used to coin new words, including hybrids (see section 4 of the present chapter).
Of special interest are etymological doublets – words which originated from the same source-word but by different routes. They display considerable similarities and also certain differences in their sound form, spelling, meaning, usage. Doublets can be borrowed in various historical periods or via different languages or dialects. E.g. the Latin word discus was the source of several doublets: 1) dais ‘raised platform’ <OF deis <L discus, 2) dish ‘a vessel for serving food at meals’ <ME dish<OE disc<L.discus, 3) disc /disk ‘round surface that appears to be flat’ <L discus, 4) discus ‘heavy disc thrown at sports contests’ < L discus, 5) desk ‘piece of furniture’ < deske/desk <L discus. These doublets were borrowed in different periods of time and in various ways (via Old French or directly from Latin).
To Franco-Latin doublets refer lexemes of French origin borrowed at the time of the Norman Conquest and Latin words borrowed in the epoch of Renaissance:
French (12- 14 c.): Latin (17 c.):
feat fact
treason tradition
reason ratio
ray radius
dainty dignity
chamber camera
defeat defect
Anglo-Scandinavian doublets are mostly represented by pairs of words with correspondences of sh-and sk-/sc- at the beginning of the words:
Native English: Scandinavian:
shirt skirt
shriek screech
share scar
shabby scabby
shrew screw
rear raise
edge egg
To dialectal doublets mostly refer etymological doublets borrowed from Norman and French dialects:
Norman French Parisian French
catch сhase
captain chieftain
cattle chattels
cavalry chivalry
card chart
cant chant
canal channel
ward guard
wage(s) gage
In conclusion it should be noted that borrowings contributed to all the layers of the English lexicon but especially important is the role of borrowings in creation of scientific terminological systems.