75.) English language is characterized by a rigid word order in accordance with which the subject of declarative sentences, as a rule, precedes the predicate. This is the so-called DIRECT word order, e.g. The assistant greeted the professor.

English word order is strict and rather inflexible. As there are few endings in English that show person, number, case or tense, English relies on word order to show the relationships between the words in the sentence.

In Russian, we rely on the endings to tell us how the words interact in the sentence. Everything we need to know about the interaction of the characters in this sentence, we learn from the endings and suffixes.

English nouns do not have any case endings (only personal pronouns have some case endings), so it is mostly the word order that tells you where things are in the sentence and how they interact. Compare these sentences:

The cat sees the dog.

The dog sees the cat.

The subject and the object in these sentences are completely the same in form. How do you know who sees whom? The rules of English word order tell you that.

And if you translate these sentences into Russian, you’ll see that exactly the case and the gender without any help of word oder show you the idea of the sentence.

71.) Replacement - This is a very important transformation, and It can affect any kind of linguistic units: word forms, parts of speech, sentence elements, types of syntactic relations, sentence types etc.

- Word forms  *The struggles of the Indian people in all parts of the US” – борьба *A novel about lives of common people” – о жизни *He said he knew the man” – он сказал, что знает… *The door was opened by a middle-aged woman” – дверь открыла…

- Parts of speech It is a common type of replacement for English nouns derived from verbs and denoting actions. In this case the English noun is replaced by a Russian verb. *It’s our hope that… – мы надеемся, что… *The abandonment by Irene of all the glittering things he had given her – Ирэн оставила The same is true for nouns derived from verbs with the help of the suffix –er. The situation is complex, because in Russian the corresponding word may not exist at all or such words may denote people of permanent occupations. *John is a sound sleeper. – крепко спит *The writer of this note. – написавший эту записку *She is a very good dancer.” – хорошо танцует Very often English adjectives are replaced by Russian nouns. *Australian prosperity – процветание Австралии *Youthful joblessness – безработица среди молодежи English comparative forms of adjectives, such as “higher, lower, longer, shorter, better” are frequently replaced by Russian nouns that come from adjective stems. *They demand higher wages and better living conditions – они требуют повышения зарплаты и улучшения условий жизни.  -Sentence elements It is sometimes called syntactic restructuring, which consists in changing of the functions of the words in the sentence. As in Russian so in English the theme is usually placed in the beginning of the sentence (subject, object, adverbial relations). In many cases the English subject is very often replaced by some secondary element with constant changes in the syntactic pattern of the whole sentence. Very often it is accompanied by certain lexical changes. * The new film is much spoken about. *Last week saw a 500 strong meeting of shop-assistants & trade union officials. *Figure 2 gives… (ЭТО УЖЕ НЕ МОЯ ТЕМА,НО ПОВТОРЕНИЯ РАДИ И ЕСЛИ У КОГО_ТО НЕПОЛНАЯ ИНФА _ ЧИТАЕМ!!!)

- Sentence types It is a very common transformation of the simple sentence by a complex one and vice versa. While translating from English into Russian it becomes necessary to replace English structures with non-finite verbal forms by subordinate clauses and in this case we turn the simple sentence into a complex one.       *I want you to speak English.     *I heard my mother go out and close the door.   *Here is a book for you to read. The subtype of this transformation is known as unification or conversely division of sentences in translation, it’s a replacement of two simple sentences by a compound or a complex one or vise versa. *Thousands of Algerians tonight fled from the dead city of Orleansville after a 12-second earthquake had ripped through central Algeria killing an estimated 1,100 people. – Сегодня вечером в центре Алжира произошло сильное землетрясение. Около 1100 человек погибло. Оставшиеся в живых в спешке покинули разрушенный город.

Unification of 2 or more sentences occurs more rarely. *The only thing that worried me was our front door. It creaked like a bastard. – Меня волновала только входная дверь, которая скрипела как сволочь. - Types of syntactic relations   Both Russian and English have syntactic relation of coordination and subordination. Coordination is more characteristic of spoken Russian, so it is often desirable when doing consecutive or immediate translation from English into Russian to replace subordination of sentences by coordination. *So I started walking way over coast where the pretty cheap restaurants are, because I didn’t want     to spend a lot of dough.”  Transformation – a formal linguistic operation, which enables to place 2 levels of structural representation in correspondence. These transformations are optional from the grammatical point of view, but they are very frequent because they add to the clarity and the simplicity of style.  The transformation helps to avoid ambiguity; it makes the implicit meaning of a sentence explicit. In the phrase “in 1969 report of the Royal Commission on Security” “of” has two meanings: - A report about the Commission - A report delivered by the Commission.

67.) Lexico-grammatical translation Antonymous Translation

Taking into account that the term “antonym” is usually used when speaking about the words with opposite meanings in one and the same language ¹¹ we shall say that antonymous translation is a complex Lexico-Grammatical Substitution of the negative construction by the positive one or vice versa ¹². B. Zahoder uses Antonymous Translation very often.

E.g.:	Piglet scratched his ear in a nice sort of way and said that he had nothing to do until Friday.
	Пятачок мужественно почесал за ухом и сказал, что до пятницы он совершенно свободен.(the negative construction is substituted by a positive one)

We also can give one more example:

	You’ll be quite safe with him.
	С ним тебя никто не тронет.

If the translator had given a positive construction like “с ним ты будешь в безопасности” it will be too formal and not altogether appropriate for the colloquial speech

63. . Generalization is used when something in the TL is usually expressed using concepts with broader meaning or when pre­serving the original concepts with narrower meaning would result in an awkward translation: She ordered a daiquiri. (= a sweet alcoholic drink made of rum and fruit juice) - Она заказала коктейль. Or. There used to be a drugstore (a Walgreens pharmacy) around here. I need to buy some soda water. - Здесь раньше был магазин. Мне надо купить газированной воды. In the latter example, translating drugstore or Walgreens pharmacy as аптека or аптека "Уолгринз " would not only be baffling to a Russian - because in Russia they do not sell газированную воду in аптеках - but it would also be unnecessary as for the purposes of communication магазин is just as good in this con­text. The more specific drugstore or Walgreens pharmacy is translated here by the more general term магазин. 59. Извините за украинский. Не нашла другого(

• Addition (додавання) – is the introduction of some additional lexical components to the TL text.

He began a new book. – Він почав читати/ писати/ перекладати нову книгу (додавання нового слова, не конкретизація)

oil countries – країни-експортери нафти

They signed a cease(-)fire. – Вони підписали договір про припинення вогню.

. Addition. The policeman waved me on. - Полицейский помахал мне рукой, показывая что я могу проезжать. Or: ''Полицейский рукой просигналил (показал), что я могу проезжать. The compact English phrase "to wave on" has no compact equivalent in Russian. . Addition

As Barhudarov noticed, Addition in translation is necessary when the semantic components of lexical unit are not formally expressed¹³ . He writes that this phenomenon is quite typical of English. These semantic elements which are meant but not formally expressed Z. Harris calls “appropriate words”. He writes that the appropriate word is “the main word to occur with particular other words in the given culture or subject mutter" ¹⁴ . As an example he gives “violin prodigy” (where the missing element which is not formally expressed is “playing”) and “violin merchant” where the corresponding appropriate word is “selling”. Barhudarov gives another example where the phrase “I began the book” should be clarified with the help of the appropriate word (either to read or to write). It depends. But not “buy” which is not an appropriate word for this sentence.

If we try to analyze the following example from Zahoder’s translation we will see that he has to add the adverbial modifier of time in order to render the grammatical meaning (prior action) of the Past Perfect .

E.g.:	It rained and rained and rained. He had had a tiring day.
	Накануне он очень устал.

Though, it could be interpreted as Grammatical Substitution, where grammatical meaning of a word in the ST is rendered semantically (see p. 41).

55.) Levels of translation transformations. вот здесь у меня такой вопрос: Это о phonetic level, level of morphemes, Words level etc? если да,то это есть в тетради,так? Ответьте в обсуждения 51) The problem of untranslatability. это есть в тетради,насколько я помню. Но вот это на всякий случай читаните: The theory of translation deals with the problem of untranslatability.  ~ No two languages having the same phonology. It’s impossible to recreate the sounds of a work composed in one language into another language. ~ No two languages having the same syntactic structure. It’s impossible to recreate the syntax of a work composed in one language into another language. ~ No two languages having the same vocabulary. It’s impossible to recreate the vocabulary of a work composed in one language into another language. ~ No two languages having the same literary history. It’s impossible to recreate the language and literary culture of a work composed in one language into another language. ~ No two languages having the same prosody. It’s impossible to recreate the prosody of a work composed in one language into another language.

The basic principle upon which the theory of translation rests is the principle of translatability, i.e. the tenet that reads: anything that can be said in one language can be said in another.There are two considerations that account for the necessity of the principle:-The first one is a proof by contradiction. If we introduce the notion of untranslatability, we have to define it and find some objective criteria to measure it. It goes without saying, it will only bring about an avalanche of perpetual disputes.The introduction of the term will trigger off the translators’ arbitrary treatment of the original. Such permissiveness will lend authority to liberal translation.In spite of the fact that the number of the adherents of the translatability is constantly increasing, there are some prominent scholars who are very much against it. They even write books about untranslatability. All the arguments against the principle of translatability boil down to the following list:1-It is a well-known fact that different cultures, i.e. different speech communities, segment extralinguistic reality in their own way. This makes for a specific semantic structure characteristic of this or that language and in some cases prevents adequate translation. The discrepancies in categorization bring about a great number of culture-bound units that name culture-specific elements, lexical lacunas and other kinds of equivalent-lacking vocabulary. Categorization and equivalent-lacking vocabulary.The phenomenon of different semantic segmentation or categorization acquires a special significance when the translator is confronted with the problem of conveying into another language a message which contains mention of something that is unknown to the speakers of that second language that is outside their experience. Indeed, there are many far more difficult cases in the sphere of culture-specific elements (реалии). What is one to do with such concepts as sauna (steam bathhouse, as in Finland), with the names of the following items of clothing: kilt (Scotland), sarong (Malaya), with the concepts characteristic of our Soviet past: ударник, бригада коммунистического труда, путевка, дом отдыха, etc.?Catford suggests that what we have here is something that cannot be translated because of the cultural discrepancy; therefore he introduces the term "cultural untranslatability. There are simple everyday words that also possess a specific national or "cultural" character; e.g. home, pet, pub are no less difficult to translate into Russian than sauna, etc.Each language is particularly rich in vocabulary for its own area of cultural focus: it is well known and often remarked upon that Alaskan Eskimos have words to denote different states, color, texture of snow (cf. Russian снег, наст). In Peru the vocabulary for such areas as hunting and fishing is highly developed, as is the vocabulary for cattle, etc. in Sudan. Thus, languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey. 2-The extralinguistic context (затекстовый выход) of some texts is so wide that it is not possible to compensate for the lack in the background knowledge of the recipient. Some texts can only be perceived when the recipient is aware of a host of associations which can emerge from his previous textual experience. Thus, the texts that contain a lot of allusions are untranslatable. b. Allusions.The problem of preserving the intertextual potential of the text is especially urgent when the recipient of the text has cultural background that is poor even in comparison with an average language user. This is the case with adolescent literature. Any kind of reading presupposes emotional perception of a text. It goes without saying, that when the reader is young, the emotional perception dominates over the intellectual one. 3-For the same reason parodies are untranslatable. c. Parodies.Parody as a kind of secondary text has always been considered a typical example of untranslatability. But the author of a parody usually means quite a different communicative effect that can be achieved in the target language. 4-When formal properties of the language code are brought to the fore and made to bear particular significance, to become part of the meaning, translation proper is impossible. It happens in poetry, advertising and political slogans that rely on alliteration and rhyme. Puns also rely on coincidental similarities of form which are rarely replicated in other languages. That is why, poetry, advertising and political slogans and puns are untranslatable.d. Puns. So far we have been discussing difficulties arising from socioilinguistically determined lexical discrepancies. There are also grammatical factors which might set up obstacles in the translator's way.

47.) Among recent developements in the anthropological sciences hardly any have found so much attention and led us to so much controversy as have the views advanced by the late Benjamin Whorf.

The hypothesis offered by Whorf is:

That the commonly held belief that the cognitive prosesses of all human beings possess a common logical structure which operates prior to and independently of comunication through language is erroneous. It is Whorf's view that the linguistic patterns themselves determine what the individual perceives in this world and how he thinks about it., Since these patterns vary widely, the modes of thinking and perceiving in groups utilizing different linguistic systems will result in basically different world views (Fearing, 1954) We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar...We cut up and organize the spread and flow of events as we do largely because, though our mother tongue, we are partes of an agreement to so so, not because nature itself is segmented in exactly that way for all to see. (Whorf, 1952, pg. 21) For example, in the Indo-European languages substantives, adjectives and verbs appear as basic grammatic units, a sentence being essentially a combination of these parts. This scheme of a persisting entity separable from its properties and active or passive behavoir is fundamental for the catagories of occidental thinking, from Aristotles catagories of "substance," "attibutes" and "action" to the antithesis of matter and force, mass and energy in physics. Indian languages, such at Nootka or Hopi do not have parts of speech or separate subject and predicate. Rather they signify an event as a whole. When we say "a light flashed" or "it ( a dubios hypostatized entity) flashed." Hopi uses a single term "flash (occured). It would be important to apply the methods of mathematical logic to such languages. Can statements in languages like Nootka or Hopi be rendered by the usual logistic notation, or is the latter a formalization of the structure of Indo-Europeanh language? It appears that this important subject has not been investigated. Indo-European languages emphasize time. The "give and take" between language and culture leads, according to Whorf, to keeping of diaries, mathematics stimulated by accounting, to calendars, clocks, chroniology, time as used in physics; to the historical attitude, interest in the past, archeology, etc. It is interesting to compare this with Spengler's conception of the central role of time in the occidental world picture which from a different viewpoint, comes to the identical conclusion.

43.) The demands of covert translation (examples). это есть в тетради 39.) When we communicate with other people, we use a language as a mean to express our feeling and ideas. But the use of language here is different between one and another. Everybody has their own style in expressing their languages in order to communicate with someone else. The differences are because of age, sex, status, state, size personality emotional state and so on. Beyond the individual differences, there is a characteristic about the way people speak in different regions and social group, we usually call it as dialect. Not only in verbal/oral communication, we deal with it, but also  in translation.

 In translating a text, we face the two dimensions of language. The first dimension is about the user of the language here, as a translator we have to consider about the setting where the writer lives ( the region), who is the writer (social class of the writer) and other aspects  that reflect the use of the language in the source text. For example in Indonesian literature, the letters of R.A Kartini translated into Dutch then made in a book by Multatuli. Now the book is known and become a historical book titled” Habis Gelap Terbitlah Terang”.When Multatuli translated her letters, of course Multatuli knew well about Kartini’s life . Multatuli knew about her life background, social status and language used by R.A Kartini in her daily life.

The second dimension of variation in using language is about the use of language itself. Here we deal with the register. It is  a kind of style that is used by the speaker or the writer towards the hearers or readers of the subject matter. The writer uses the language for certain purposes of communication.  So, the writer will use a variety of language determined by the subject matter. A lawyer and a journalist will use different language in their job fields. They use a particular register in their words. In addressing the jugde in a  court, a lawyer will say “Your Honour” or “Yang Mulia” but a journalist will write or address” The Judge” or ” Bapak Hakim” .

Register is also access the situation the conversation or objective of the text. In another word, register mediates between language and situation. This is about the choice of using language in formal or informal way. In society, we have to know when we should use formal or informal language. When we attend a tribunal, a seminar or a ceremony of course we use formal language and sometimes we use different register, but when we communicate with our friends we use informal language or even we see on TV that people use informal language for entertainment. For example, Negeri Impian Show, it  is formatted as a kind of debate of the country’s candidates but using informal language and jokes. Another fact that shows we always deal with the use language is the purpose of the language itself. For example in persuading someone in speech and in advertisment using different language and style. In speech we often use the word ” we should….” to persuade someone else to make them agree with our ideas. But in advertisment we use a simple language and the language or the word must attract the audience and make them buy the product. As shown on TV, Sprite ads just give slogan” Kutahu yang kumahu” seems very simple but has implicit meaning and persuading us to drink that  kind of soft drink. But of course the visualization of the ads support the word/ slogan become more effective in persuading the consumers.

35.) Analysis of equivalence. это есть в тетради,но я толком не поняла,как это рассказывать,ибо дальше идет описание tenor, mode, register, а по ним и так есть вопросы оО 31) Denotative equivalence and Connotative equivalence. есть в тетради,но там немного вот чуточку дополнения для ясности Denotation refers to the literal meaning of a word, so as to establish the denotation of a word theusage of a large number of dictionaries is mandatory. Leon Levichi advises us to use in the first place a monolingual dictionary, then a bilingual one. The purpose of the later one is to attest thatthe choice that we have made is the correct one, or to see if his tongue has an equivalent for theneeded word and if it¶s the case to paraphrase it in a footnote.Denotation is related to the meanings of the words, namely semantics. When translating a word,the translator also has to pay attention to the linguistic context, the words, sentences and phrasesthat surrounds it. The determiner is an important constituent in a clause because it transforms aword from being a simple notion into a lexical element that may be used in sentences Connotation refers to the associated or second meaning of a word or expression in addition to itsexplicit and primary meaning. In general, dictionaries do not contain the connotations of thewords enlisted due to lack of space. A possible connotation for the word

h

ome

with its Romanianequivalent casa is

a

p

lace of comfo

rt,

wa

r 

m

th

a

nd 

affec

ti

o

n

; the noun

r 

ose

or its Romanianequivalent

tr 

a

nd 

af 

ir 

has positive connotations like

beau

ty,

 

 p

e

r 

 fume

 ,

f 

r 

es

hn

ess

; unlike the nounfox (vulpe) that has negative connotations such us

in

 s

idi

ous

 ,

s

h

a

rp

;

hy

e

n

a

-

 

connotes

ugl 

in

ess

 ,

 

d 

a

n

 ge

r 

ous

27) Different types of equivalence in translation. есть в тетради и отлично все понятно