International Words

It is often the case that a word is borrowed by several languages, and not just by one. Such words usually convey concepts which are significant in the field of communication.

Many of them are of Latin and Greek origin. Most names of sciences are international, e. g. philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, linguistics, lexicology. There are also numerous terms of art in this group: music, theatre, drama, tragedy, comedy, artist.

The English language also contributed a considerable number of international words to world languages. football, volley-ball, baseball, hockey, cricket, rugby, tennis, golf, etc.coffee, cocoa, chocolate, coca-cola, banana, mango, avocado, grapefruit.

BORROWINGS

English continues to take in foreign words , but now the quantity of borrowings is not so abundunt as it was before. Borrowings can be classified according to different criteria:

a) according to the aspect which is borrowed There are the following groups: phonetic borrowings, translation loans, semantic borrowings, morphemic borrowings.

b) according to the degree of assimilation Accordingly borrowings are subdivided into: completely assimilated, partly assimilated and non-assimilated (barbarisms).

c) according to the language from which the word was borrowed: Latin borrowings alter, cross, dean, and Greek words: church, angel, devil, anthem.appendicitis, aspirin, (acid, valency, alkali), in technique (engine, antenna, biplane, airdrome), in politics (socialism, militarism), names of sciences (zoology, physics) (homonym, archaism, lexicography).

French: administer, empire, state, government; army, war, banner, soldier, battle;advocate, petition, inquest, sentence, barrister; luxury, coat, collar, lace, pleat,topaz, emerald, ruby, pearl; dinner, appetite, to roast, to stew.

Italian borrowings:alto, baritone, basso, tenor, falsetto, solo, duet, trio, gazette, incognitto, autostrada, fiasco, fascist, diletante, grotesque, graffitto

Scandinavian borrowings.Sister, fish, fellow, such nouns as: bull, cake, egg, kid, knife, skirt, window etc, such adjectives as: flat, ill, happy, low, odd, ugly, wrong, such verbs as : call, die, guess, get, give, scream and many others.same, both, till, though, and pronominal forms with “th”: they, them, their.German borrowings.cobalt, bismuth, zink, quarts, gneiss, wolfram,iceberg, lobby, rucksack, Kindergarten etc.Russian borrowings.rouble, copeck, pood, sterlet, vodka, sable, and also words relating to nature, such as: taiga, tundra, steppe etc.Narodnik, moujik, and also words as: nihilist, intelligenzia, etc.shock worker, collective farm, five-year plan etc.glasnost, nomenklatura, apparatchik etc.

3.Word-building is the building of new words out of the old stock of morphemes and stems. New words are not created at random. They are built in accordance with the patterns which are already established. Such mean of w-b as ablaut is no more productive. There are 4 word-building ways which are very productive:

1. affixation;

2. conversion or transposition;

3. compounding or composition;

4. shortening or clipping.

Conversion is one of the most productive ways of making new words. By conversion we mean numerous cases of phonetic and graphic identity of initial forms of two words belonging to different parts of speech. *to smoke – a smoke. We know that 2 components 1) the lexical meaning or root morpheme and 2) part of speech meaning of the stem form part of the meaning of the whole word. The stems of 2 words, which make a conversion pair, can’t be regarded as identical. *”to smoke” does not equal to “a smoke”. Groups: 1) denominal verbs make up the largest group form through conversion. * a butcher – to butcher 2) the verbal substances – nouns, converted from verbs. * to move – a move. So, conversion is a shift from 1 part of speech to another and the same w-d may function as 2/more parts of speech.

Affixation - adding an affix to a definite part of speech. 2 functions – to form part of speech from another, to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. Classification: part of speech classification – noun forming suffixes(er, dom); adj.(able, less, ous); verb(ize, en); adverb(ly, ward); numeral (ty, fold). Semantic classification: noun-formig suffixes – the agent of the action – er, ist,ent; the meaning of nationality – ian, ese, ish; feminine gender suffixes ine, ette(cosmonette); abstract noun suff – hood, ness. The origin of the suffixes – native(er, ful, less, ed); romantic(tion, ment, able, ant, age); greek (ist, ism, ize); Russian(nik - nogoodnik).

Word-compounding or composition means the production of a new word by way of combining(uniting) different stems with different degree of complexity. There can be also words unifying 3 stems: merry-go-round. Compound word are indivisible, posses structural integrity, function as separate lexical units. Semantically compound words are generally motivated. 4 main types of comp-nds in modern English:1) comp formed by means of stems+junction: moonlight, skyblue, anything, key-holder, v-day. 2)formed by means of a suffix which refers to the combination of stems as a whole – snub-nosed. 3) compounds with linking elements(o,i) – Afro-American. 4)formed by way of isolating syntagness, 3 or more elements – lilly-of-the-valley. Ways of spelling – in one word, with a hyphen, separately. The stonewall constructions - n+n such as Morningstar, mother country. Each pair is made up of the modifier + the element modified. *brain drain source. Make up type * to nick name, to house keep – pseude compound.

Shortening/clipping it consists on substituting part for a whole. The shortened unit is considered to be a stylistic synonyms*examination – exam. The reason – the analogy with monosyllables, the demand of the rhythm, borrowed short sound like native one. Unlike conversion shortening produces words into the same part of speech. Group:

• opocope – the final part is clipped(examination - exam)

• a phaeresis – the initial is clipped(phone)

• syncope – the middle part is omitted (mam from Madam)

• the middle part remain – fridge from refrigerator

• ellipsis – the omission of a word or words in a word group(a daily paper – paper)

• blending(television broadcast - telecast)

• acronyms and abbreviation – MP

• sound imitation – onomatopia –to hiss, to bark

• back-formation – beggar –to beg, change part of speech.

4.Word meaning – there is no universal definition of the word “meaning”. Meaning – content of the word. 2 main points of view of the problem: -referential and functional. Referential (Ogden, Richards) – the essence of meaning lies in the interdependence b/n word, concepts, the thing named – the basic triangle * sound form - haus, concept – some building, referring – how we imagine. The sound form isn’t identical with the meaning, its a conventional sign. The concept – the category of human cognition, it the thought of the thing. Concepts are universal, but the meaning of words are different in different languages. Functional approach – how a word function in a speech and how its meaning works. It is based on the analysis of various contexts, it also called contextual. Based on the distribution – the position of a linguistic sign in relation to other ling sign.

Types of meaning: grammatical – is always present and expressed by word forms, by distribution, through the part of speech; denotational – is individual and different for each separate word; connotational (emotive charge – the emotive evaluationof thing *magnificent, subjective emotive implication – depend on the personal experience of the speaker, a neutral word may acquire strong emotive implication; stylistic colouring – words are divided into literary(terms of science, poetic voc-ry, archaism, barbarism), colloquial (slang, professionalisms, jargonisms, colloquial coinages), and neutral.)

Change of meaning – meaning is liable to change in the course of historical development of l-ge. The factors may be subdivided into: extralinguistic and linguistic. Extralinguistic – the change in the life of the speech community. Linguistic – allipses(усечение), the discrimination of synonyms, linguistic analogy. There are two kinds of associations between the old meaning and the new one: similarity of m-ng(metapha) and contiquity of m-ng(metonumy). Metapha plays more important role that metonymy. Results of such changes can be observed in the change of denotational meaning of the word: restriction (* fowl in ME any bird, now domestic bird) and extension of the meaning(*target).Generalisation – from special voc-ry to common. Changes in the connotational meaning – pejorative (унижающий) and ameliorative.

Monosemantic words are comparatively few in number and they are mainly scientific terms. If polysemy is viewed diachronically it is understood as the growth and development, a change in the semantic structure of the word. The first meaning – primary, and which was developed from primary – secondary. Main source of polysemy is a change of a semantic structure of the word; from homonymy. Synchronically – co-existence of various meaning of the same word at a certain historical period.

Homonymy – word identical in sound form but different in their meanings. Sources: - 1) developed from convergent(сходящиеся в одной точке) sound – I-eye. 2)developed from polysemy through divergent sense development.*foot – part of the body and unit of measurement. 3) different part of speech conversion – back. Classification:

1. traditional – perfect –school(школа) и school (косяк рыбы)

- homophone – weak-week

- homograph – lead –вести и кивать, разное произношение

2. full and partial

3. proposed by Smirnitsky: -lexical (seal and seal)

- lexico-grammatical (blue-blew)

- grammatical (sisters,sister’s)

quasi homonyms – pronounced in fluent speech in the same way, but with different pronunciation in careful speech. tired – tied.