New York.

New York is one of the largest cities in the world. It was founded three hundred years ago at the mouth of the Hudson river.

The centre of New York is Manhattan Island. In 1626 it was bought from the Indians for a handful of trinkets that cost twenty four dollars. Today Manhattan is the centre of business and finance. Numerous skyscrapers house banks and offices of American business. Broadway begins here, the Stock Exchange is located here, too. Very few people live in Manhattan, though the majority works here. Numerous bridges link Manhattan with the opposite shores.

New York is inhabited by people of almost all nationalities and races. It is called “modern Babylon”. At the turn of the twentieth century a lot of people came to the USA from different countries of the world. They entered the USA through New York, the Gateway of America.

New York is one of the leading manufacturing cities in the world. Yhe most important industries are those producing paper products, vehicles, glass, chemicals, machinery. New York has a heavy traffic. The sea encircles many of the city areas and the ships go over or under New York traffic routes.

Topical Vocabulary

-to be founded at the mouth of- быть основанным в устье (реки)

-to be bought from the Indians

for a handful of trinkets- быть купленным у индейцев за горсть безделушек

-numerous skyscrapers-бесчисленные небоскребы

-to house smth.- размещать что-либо

-the Stock Exchange- Фондовая биржа

-to be located- быть расположенным

-to link(smth) with smth- связывать что-либо с чем-либо

-to be inhabited by smb.- быть населенным кем-либо

-“modern Baylon”- современный Вавилон

-at the turn of the …century- на рубеже…века

-the Gateway of America- «ворота Америки»

-a vehicle- машина

-a chemical- продукт химической промышленности

- a heavy traffic- оживленное движение

-a traffic route- маршрут, дорога, транспортный путь.

Answer the questions:

1. When was New York founded?

2. What is the centre of the city?

3. Why is New York called “modern Babylon”?

4. What are the most important industries in New York?

Билет 16.

The Concept of Human Rights Today

Read the text.

The evolution at the national and international level has resulted in a modern concept of human rights which is built on, but is also different from, natural law philosophy of previous generations.

Human rights must today be understood as those rights which are contained in the international instruments: the Universal Declaration and the International Covenants, as well as the regional human rights conventions.

The notion of human rights is intimately linked to the notion of “State”. Only in the context of an organized society with organs of authority does the notion of human rights make sense. The concept refers to the relationship between the individual and the State: the freedom the individuals should enjoy, their right to legal justice, their rights to political participation, and their claims on the State in terms of satisfaction of basic needs and an adequate standard of living.

There are several ways of classifying the different human rights. These are the most important components:

1. The right to physical and mental integrity: the right to life and to liberty and security of person – including freedom from torture and cruel or inhuman treatment, freedom from slavery, servitude and forced labour; freedom from arbitrary arrest and other deprivations of liberty.

2. Freedom of conscience and action: freedom of religion, of opinion and expression, and freedom of information; freedom of movement, including the right to leave and to return to one’s own country.

3. The right to legal justice: fair trial in criminal cases, the right to defense counsel, prohibition of the use of criminal laws retrospectively.

4. Privacy and family rights: the rights to respect for ones privacy, respect and protection of the family.

5. Political rights: the right to take part in the conduct of public affairs, the right to vote and to be elected.

6. Social and economic rights: the right to work, to adequate living and social security, the right to health services.

7. Equality and non-discrimination.

In recent years, there has at the United Nations been an increasing concern with collective rights, in addition to the individual rights mentioned above. One of these is Independence as well as in many of the constitutions adopted in the 19century: the right to self-determination of a nation, or people. Others are less recognized and still controversial, including the right to development, proclaimed by the General Assembly of the United Nations and adopted in December 1986. While many will accept these as peoples (i.e. the group) rights, there is doubt whether they can be considered human (i. e. individual) rights.

Topical Vocabulary

• evolution - изменение, развитие

• concept - концепция

• human rights - права человека

• Universal Declaration - Всеобщая Декларация

• International Covenants - Международные соглашения

• intimately linked - тесно связаны

• participation - участие

• claim - требования

• physical and mental integrity - единство

• security of person - безопасность личности

• adequate standard of living- соответствующие стандарты уровня жизни

• arbitrary arrest - необоснованный арест

• deprivation - лишения

• conscience - совесть

• freedom of assembly - свобода собраний

• trade unions - профессиональные союзы

• respect for one’s privacy- уважение к частной жизни

Answer the questions

1.What are human rights?

2.What are the international instruments of human rights?

3.When does the notion of human rights make sense?

4. Why ?

5. Why are the collective rights still controversial?

Билет 17.