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I. Family relations: father, mother, brother, son, daughter.

11. Parts of the human body: foot (cf. R. Пядь),

nose, lip, heart. Ш. Animals: cow, swine, goose. IV. Plants: tree, birch (cf. R. береза), corn (cf.

R. зерно). V. Time of day: day, night. VI. Heavenly bodies: sun, moon, star. VII. Numerous adjectives: red (cf. Ukr. рудий, R. рыжий), new, glad (cf. R. гладкий)., sad (cf. R. сыт). VTII. The numerals from one to a hundred. IX. Pronouns — personal (except they which is a

Scandinavian borrowing); demonstrative. X. Numerous verbs: be (cf. R. быть), stand (cf. R. стоять), sit (cf. R. сидеть), eat (cf. R. есть), know (cf, R. знать, знаю).

The Germanic element represents words of roots common to all or most Germanic languages. Some of the main groups of Germanic words are the same as in the Indo-European element.

1 The classification and examples are taken from Ара-кип В. Д. Очерки по истории английского языка, с. 251.


I. Parts of the human body: head, hand, arm, finger, bone.

II. Animals: bear, fox, calf.

  1. Plants: oak, fir, grass.

  2. Natural phenomena: rain, frost.

V. Seasons of the year: winter, spring, summer.1 VI. Landscape features: sea, land. VII- Human dwellings and furniture: house, room, bench.

VIII. Sea-going vessels: boat, ship. IX. Adjectives: green, blue, grey, white, small,

thick, high, old, good. X. Verbs: see, hear, speak, tell, say, answer, make, give, drink.

к * *

It has been mentioned that the English proper ele­ment is, in certain respects, opposed to the first two groups. Not only can it be approximately dated, but these words have another distinctive feature: they are specifically English having no cognates2 in other lan­guages whereas for Indo-European and Germanic words such cognates can always be found, as, for in­stance, for the following words of the Indo-European group.

Star: Germ. Stern, Lat. Stella, Gr. aster. Sad: Germ, satt, Lat. saris, R. сыт, Snscr. sd-. Stand: Germ, stehen, Lat. stare, R. стоять, Snscr. stha-.

Here are some examples of English proper words. These words stand quite alone in the vocabulary system of Indo-European languages: bird, boy, girl, lord, lady, woman, daisy, always.

1 Autumn is a French borrowing.

2 Cognates — words of the same etymological root, of com­mon origin.

Of course, one might remark that Russian vocabu­lary also has the words лорд, леди, бой (in the meaning of "native servant"). The explanation is simple: these words have been borrowed by Russian from English and therefore are not cognates of their English counter­parts.

It should be taken into cosideration that the English proper element also contains all the later formations, that is, words which were made after the 5th century according to English word-building patterns (see Ch. 5, 6) both from native and borrowed morphemes. For in­stance, the adjective 'beautiful' built from the French borrowed root and the native suffix belongs to the En­glish proper element. It is natural, that the quantity of such words is immense.