The conservation and the transformation of energy

Einstein’s work on the theory of relativity which he put forward early in the last century has altered our ideas regarding mass and energy as being separate and distinct from one another. Einstein has simplified our picture of the universe by showing that the mass and energy can be converted from one to the other. This view has been supported by a number of experiments. Until this theory was put forward two fundamental laws were accepted by physicists.

Firstly, the law of conservation of matter, which states that the total quantity of matter in the universe is fixed and cannot be increased or decreased. And secondly, the law of conservation of energy which affirms that the total quantity of energy in the universe is likewise constant and can be neither created nor destroyed.

Nowadays, in the light of the theory of relativity, these two laws have become fused into one. We have seen a number of cases where one type of energy has been transformed into another. Whenever energy in one form is expended, an equal amount of energy in some other form takes its place.

We have different units in which various forms of energy are measured, but after the conversion of work into heat, or chemical energy into work or electrical energy, the actual amount of energy is the same as before the change. This fact which is one of the fundamentals of physics is known as the law of the Conservation and Transformation of Energy.

Ex. 1 Complete the following sentences

1. Einstein’s work on the theory of relativity … our ideas regarding mass and energy.

2. Einstein … our picture of the universe.

3. His view … by a number of experiments.

4. These two laws … fused into one.

5. We have seen a number of cases where one type of energy … into another.

Ex. 2. Choose the right word

What do you know about Einstein’s work on the theory of (relativity, relativism)? This scientist (put out, put forward) his theory two centuries ago. The mass and energy can be (supported, converted) from one to the other. The law of conservation of (matter, energy) states that the total quantity of matter in the universe is fixed and cannot be increased or decreased. The law of conservation of energy affirms that the total quantity of energy in the universe is likewise (constant, distinct) and can be neither created nor destroyed. These two laws have become (used, fused) into one. One type of energy has been (transformed, simplified) into another. Whenever energy in one form is (separated, expended), an equal amount of energy in some other form takes its (part, place). We have different (units, laws) in which various forms of energy are measured. The law of the Conservation and Transformation of Energy is one of the (fundamentals, constants) of physics.

Ex. 3. Answer the following questions

1. What kind of theory did Einstein put forward?

2. What has his view been supported by?

3. What does the law of conservation of matter state?

4. What does the law of conservation of energy affirm?

5. Can one type of energy be transformed into another?

6. Is the actual amount of energy the same as before the conversion of work into heat?

Ex. 4. Translate into English

Эйнштейн выдвинул теорию относительности. Он показал, что масса и энергия могут переходить друг в друга. До того как была выдвинута эта теория, физики признавали два закона: закон сохранения вещества и закон сохранения энергии. Они утверждали, что общее количество вещества и энергии в мире постоянно. В свете теории относительности эти два закона слились в один. Один вид энергии переходит в другой, но общее количество энергии остается таким же, как и до перехода.

Ex. 5. Translate the following sentences and explain the use of tenses in them

1. Whenever work is done, energy of some other form is used up. 2. If too much fuel is supplied to the engine, more kinetic energy will be produced than is being used up, and the car will go faster. 3. If the car is slowed down by application of the brakes, the lining of these bring very large forces of friction into play and kinetic energy is destroyed in overcoming these forces and liberated as heat. 4. The electrical energy is converted into heat and light. 5. The loudspeaker is made to vibrate and energy in the form of sound results.

Ex. 6. Make up all possible questions to these sentences.

1. The rate at which machines can work is called their power rating and is usually given in horsepower or watts. 2. Large machines may have ratings of several thousands of horsepower. 3. The forces of nature are capable of working at tremendous rates for very short intervals of time.

Ex. 7. Make up sentences with the following words and word combinations.

Theory of relativity, put forward, regarding mass and energy, separate, distinct, simplified, were accepted, constant, the law of conservation, electrical energy, quantity, a number of experiments.

Ex. 8. Ask questions to these sentences

1. These two laws have become fused into one. 2. This view has been supported by a number of experiments. 3. His work has simplified our picture of the universe. 4. We have seen a number of cases of transformation of energy. 5. One type of energy has been transformed into another

Ex.5. Ex. Translate into Russian paying special attention to degrees of comparison.

Ex. 9. Translate in Russian

1. The nucleus of an atom is a fantastically dense bit of matter that occupies less than a trillionth of the volume of the atom and yet accounts for more than 99.9 percent of the atom's mass. 2. The

intervening years have brought a much deeper understanding of the general structure of nuclei. 3. The lighter nuclei have roughly equal numbers of protons and neutrons; more massive nuclei have more neutrons than protons. 4. Many similar experiments, with bombarding beams both of alpha particles and of protons, have since been conducted at lower energies with greater precision. 5. A somewhat more sensitive test of the models is to examine the frequency with which such particles are created as the energy of the incident proton increases. Perhaps the most sensitive test of the two models is now in progress. 6. More definitive studies of the surface region of the heaviest nuclei will be conducted with new accelerators. 7. The nucleus is held by the most intense force known in nature. 8. The electric force is the second-strongest force in nature and can act over a greater distance than the nuclear force. 9. The earliest recorded speculations on the nature of matter are those of the Greek philosophers. 10. The small family of elementary particles known as the leptons (from Greek for "light ones") can be distinguished from the two other major classes of subatomic matter by a number of criteria, among which mass is perhaps the least important. 11. Electronic devices, such as magnetic spectrometers with various types of counter, yield less detailed information on particular events and cannot readily handle complex events that produce many particles. 12. Quantum electrodynamics is perhaps the most elegant and successful theory in physics. 12. In the best scientific tradition he designed laboratory experiments aimed at checking and improving the theory. 14. In the widest sense physics is the study of all phenomena that occur in nature and its problem is to understand them. 15. The more the subject is examined, the more complex must we suppose the constitution of matter in order to explain the remarkable effects observed. 16. The higher the temperature, the greater the total amount of radiation that is produced and the greater the fraction of the total that is in the form of high energy photons, or light quanta. 17. Saying that momentum and energy do not balance is equivalent to saying that the virtual photon has nonzero mass: the shorter the lifetime, the wider the range of masses a virtual particle can assume. 18. The greater the compression, the faster the motion and the greater the resulting pressure. 19. The resolving power of an electron microscope is related to the energy of the electrons that illuminate the microscope specimen the higher the energy of the electrons, the finer the detail that can be seen.

Ex. 10. Put the verbs into brackets into Present Perfect Active, translate the sentences.

1. We wish to emphasize how probability (help) to lift up conservation laws to a more important role in physics. 2. The big scientific surprise of the twentieth century (be) that some "nonphysical" branches of mathematics turned out to be physical after all. 3. In this century the mathematical foundations of physics (become) more abstract and more difficult to understand. 4. It is interesting that in modern physics, force (become) a very unimportant concept. 5. The physicist (be able) to make good use of a vector in his description of nature. 6. The beta decay of the neutron illustrates the conservation laws we (discuss) lately. 7. The view of the fundamental role of conservation laws in nature (become) fixed in the thinking of physicists by this time. 8. We never (use) feet as a measure of distance.

Isaac Newton

In the little village of Woolthorpe, not far from the old university town of Cambridge, in a farmer’s house Isaac Newton was born on December 25, 1642.

As a schoolboy, Newton used to make things with his own hands. In particular, he made a primitive wooden clock that was driven by the slow escape of water.

His family wanting him to become a farmer, he did his best to be of use at the farm, but with no success, his mind being always busy with observing various phenomena of nature and reflecting upon them.

At the age of 18 he was sent to Cambridge and there he followed the ordinary mathematical courses of his time. Some years after having taken his degree he was appointed professor to the chair of physics and mathematics at Cambridge. He delivered an extended course of lectures in optics which were not published until some sixty years later. While quite a young man he developed a mathematical method indispensable for all questions involving motion. This method which is now known under the name of the differential and the integral calculus was developed at the same time by the German scientist and philosopher Leibnitz.

The theory of gravity was developed by Newton in its essential features when he was only 24, but some twenty years later he returned to this subject. Having been brought, by the fall of the apple, to the conclusion that the apple and the earth were pulling one another, he began to think of the same pull of gravity extending far beyond the earth. The problem of the paths of the planets, one of the greatest problems of those times, was “what laws could account for the ceaseless motion of the planets round the sun?”

Newton deduced and calculated the force of gravity acting between the sin and the planets, thus establishing the law of gravitation in its most general form. By discovering this law, he demonstrated the uniformity of things and found a connecting link between the mechanics of the earth and the mechanics of the heavens. His great work Principia, published in 1687, gave an insight into the structure and mechanics of the universe.

He also discovered the laws of motion which we still consider to be the basis of all calculations concerning motion.

He died in 1727, at the age of 84. His funeral ceremonies were those of a natural hero. It was the first time that national honours of this kind have been accorded in England to a man of science or to any figure of thought, learning or art.

Translate into English

Своими руками, безуспешно, различные явления, кафедра физики и математики, курс лекций по оптике, все вопросы, касающиеся движения, дифференциальные и интегральные исчисления, теория гравитации, падение яблока, объяснить, бесконечное движение планет, основа всех расчетов, ученый, связующее звено, рассчитать силу гравитации, известный под названием.

Heat

What is heat? There have been many theories to explain the nature of heat. About 2 centuries ago heat was considered to be an invisible substance that passed from a hot to a cold object. This supposed substance was called caloric.

According to the caloric theory, when an object was heated in a flame it became full of caloric. The object would transfer part of its caloric to a colder substance when placed next to it. Only Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton began to think about heat in terms of molecular motion. Our great scientist M. V. Lomonosov was among the first to state that heat phenomena were due to the motion of molecules. That statement of his was the result of many carefully performed laboratory experiments, of study and observations. Lomonosov’s theory laid the foundation of the present-day molecular-kinetic theory of heat.

Today heat is known to be a form of energy. The coal that burns in a boiler vaporizes the water and speeds up the steam molecules. The molecules of steam bombard the pistons in the cylinders of the locomotive so that a heavy train can be hauled across a continent. The chemical energy of coal is transformed into heat energy of the molecules of steam. The motion of the steam molecules is transformed to the motion of wheels by which the train is moved.

Ex. 1. Are these statements right or wrong?

1. Heat is an invisible substance called caloric. 2. Some scientists began to think that heat phenomena were due to the motion of molecules. 3. Lomonosov made many carefully performed laboratory experiments. 4. Lomonosov’s theory laid the foundation of the present-day theory of gravitation. 5. Heat is a form of energy. 6. The chemical energy can be transformed into heat energy. 7. The motion of the coal molecules is transformed to the motion of wheels by which the train is moved.

Ex. 2. Answer the following questions

Who began to think about heat in terms of molecular motion? What did Lomonosov’s theory lay the foundation for? What is heat known to be today? Which Lomonosov’s statement was the result of many carefully performed laboratory experiments?

Ex. 3. Complete the sentences

Heat can never be produced without the expenditure of ….

Because of this we regard heat itself as a form of …

When a lump of lead is vigorously hammered, it becomes hot – mechanical energy is changed to …

If coal gas is burned, chemical energy ….

An electric current passing through the element of an electric wire produces heat from … On a fine summer day the radiant energy warms us as we bask in …

So long as the lead is hammered, fuel used, electric current passed and so on, heat energy …

Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton began to think about heat in terms of… Lomonosov stated that heat phenomena were due to….

Lomonosov’s theory laid the foundation of ….

Ex. 4. Make up and write all possible questions to the following sentences

We regard heat as a form of energy. We must indicate temperature in numerical terms. The Celsius scale was devised by Celsius in 1742.

Ex. 5. Copy these sentences putting “invisible”, “heat”, “caloric”, “hauls”, “performs”, “speed up”, in the blanks

1. An object heated in a flame became full of… 2. They thought about … in terms of molecular motion. 3. Heat was considered to be an … substance. 4. The locomotive … a heavy train. 5. He … some experiments. 6. They … the process of transformation.

Ex. 6. Put the verbs into brackets into Present Perfect or Past Indefinite, translate the sentences.

1. They never (observe) the star through their telescope. 2. The student (to use) the equations repeatedly to solve the problems. 3. We (decide) to choose the foot as our length unit. 4. We (determine) the units of our derived quantities after he (to chose) the units of our fundamental quantities. 5. We (explain) why we (choose) our method of reasoning. 6. It (take) the body two minutes to come to rest. 7. How far the particle (travel) before it (come) to rest? 8. From our graph we (determine) the magnitude and direction of the resultant 9. When (get) you the result of your last experiment? 10. You (get) any certain answer to the question from your experiments? 11. It appears that they (transform) two particles into four. 12. It never (occur) to us to check the theory.

Ex. 7. Change the sentences using Past Perfect.

Model: I saw a book on the table and looked through it. I looked through a book I had seen on the table.

1. I made some experiments and explained them. 2. The students asked some questions and the lecturer answered them. 3. He brought a new device and gave it to me. 4. Tom wrote an article and all his friends liked it. 5. Bob read the book and then gave it to me. 6. He wrote the formula and then explained it. 7. They defined the unit then used it. 8. He constructed the device and we could use it. 9. He painted the picture and showed it to us. 10. I read the book and spoke about it.

Ex. 8. Change the sentences using Future Perfect.

Mode1: I will come to your place at 5 o'clock. He will have come to your place by 6 o'clock.

1. We shall take our exam next week. They... in a week's time. 2. He will finish this book tomorrow. I ... by tomorrow. 3. I'll still be here next year, but Mary... (leave). 4. I will finish my work at the end of this week. Tom ... by the end of next week. 5. On the first of May I will go to the country. He ... (be) at home by the first

of May. 6. They will build a new building here next year. We.... two new buildings by the end of the year. 7. We shall see everything in your laboratory tomorrow. They... by then.