3. Evolution of Language and Scope of Language History.

The evolution of language is made up of diverse facts and processes. First, it includes the internal or structural development of the language system, its various subsystems and component parts. The description of internal linguistic history is usually presented in accordance with the division of language into linguistic levels. The main, commonly accepted levels are:

• the phonetic and phonological levels,

• the morphological level,

• the syntactic level,

• the lexical level.

Accordingly, the history of the language can be subdivided into:

• historical phonetics (phonology),

• historical morphology,

• historical syntax,

• historical lexicology.

The evolution of language includes also many facts, which pertain to the functioning of language in the speech community. These functional aspects constitute what is known as the "external" history of the language. They embrace a large number of diverse matters:

• the spread of the language in geographical and social space,

• the differentiation of language into functional varieties

• contacts with other languages, etc.

In discussing these aspects of history, we deal with the concept of language space that is the geographical and social space occupied by the language. We also deal with the concept of linguistic situation, which embraces the functional differentiation of language and relationship between the functional varieties. Most of these features are connected with the history of the speech community, for example, with the structure of society, the migration of tribes, economic and political events, the growth of culture and literature. Although certain changes constantly occur at one or another linguistic level, the historical development of language cannot be regarded as permanent instability. Many features of the language remain static in diachrony. There are certain permanent, universal properties to be found in all languages at any period. They are such as the division of sounds into vowels and consonants, the distinction between the main parts of speech and the parts of the sentence, etc. In addition to those universal properties, English has many stable characteristics, for example, some parts of the English vocabulary have been preserved through ages.

The proportion of stable and changeable features varies at different historical periods and at different linguistic levels. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that we can find statics and dynamics both in synchrony and diachrony. Dynamics in diachrony, that is linguistic change, requires special consideration.

4. Concept of Linguistic Change.

There are three main types of difference in language: geographical, social, temporal. Linguistic changes imply temporal differences. They become apparent if the same elements of the language are compared at successive historical stages. They are transformations of the same units in time. These transformations can be registered as distinct steps in their evolution. For instance, the Old English form of the Past tense plural Indicative Mood of the verb to find – fundon ['fundon] became founden ['fu:nd n] in the 12^th-13^th centuries and found in Modern English. In this case we can register several changes:

• phonetic and spelling changes in the root vowel: [u] → [u:] → [au]; u→ou;

• phonetic and morphological changes in the inflection: on → en → Ø;

• morphological changes in the place of the form in the verb paradigm and its grammatical meaning: fundon was the Past tense plural of the Indicative Mood; founden was also the form of the Past tense plural Subjunctive Mood and Participle II; these forms had fallen together; the modern form found stands now both for singular and plural.

All these changes belong to the language system. So they can be defined as structural or intralinguistic. The concept of linguistic change is not limited to internal changes. It also includes temporal differences in the position of the given unit in language space. A new feature – a word, a form, a sound – can be recognized as a linguistic change. It can be done only after it has been accepted for general use in most varieties of the language. For instance, in the 10^th-11^th centuries many Scandinavian words penetrated into the Northern dialects of English: sky, they, call, etc. Later they entered literary English. Most linguistic changes involve some kind of substitution. Therefore, they can be called replacements. Replacements are subdivided into different types. A simple one-to-one replacement occurs when a new unit takes the place of the old one:

• Old English clipian, Scandinavian kalla → Old English ceallian → Middle English callen → Modern English call;

• Old English niman, Scandinavian taka → Old English takan → Middle English taken → Modern English take;

• Old English ēā yree (ēā e глаз + yrel отверстие), Scandinavian vindauga (vinda ветер + auga глаз) → Middle English windo e → Modern English window.

Replacements can be found both in the plane of expression and in the plane of content. Most of linguistic changes have a more complicated pattern. Two or more units may fall together and thus one unit may replace them. This type of replacement is defined as merging or merger: Scandinavian deyia умирать; Old English deað смерть, dēād мертвый; → Modern English die, dead, death. (Old English steorfan умирать → Middle English sterven → Modern English starve (In the 12^th century the meaning of sterven was narrowed to умирать от голодать);

Two distinct units may take the place of one. This type of replacement is defined as splitting or split:

• Old English heofon → Middle English heven → Modern English heaven;

Scandinavian sky.

• Old English sceorte длинная рубаха → Modern English skirt

• Scandinavian skyrte длинная рубаха → Modern English shirt

Replacements can also be described in terms of oppositions. Thus, a merger is an instance of neutralization or loss of oppositions between formerly contrasted linguistic units. The essence of splitting is the growth of new oppositions between identical or non-distinctive forms. Many linguistic changes can be described in terms of replacements. However, the concept of replacements is narrower than that of linguistic change. Some changes are pure losses. Many words have been lost together with the objects or ideas, which have become obsolete. Some changes are pure innovations. They do not replace anything. Innovations are numerous new words. They were borrowed or coined in order to denote new objects or ideas: sputnik, nylon, baby-sitter.

In addition to the described classifications, other various classifications are used in order to achieve an orderly analysis and presentation. Linguistic changes are classified and described in accordance with linguistic levels:

• phonetic and phonological changes,

• grammatical changes (they include morphological and syntactic changes),

• spelling changes,

• lexical changes,

• stylistic changes.

However, in describing the evolution of language we more often deal with the development of entire sets or systems of linguistic units, not just with separate changes of sounds, grammatical forms, words. Every separate change enters a large frame and forms a part of development of a certain system. As it is known language is a system of interrelated elements, subsystems and linguistic levels. The alteration of one element is a part of the alteration of the entire system. It reveals a rearrangement of the structure of the entire system. Linguistic changes are usually slow and gradual. They proceed in minor, imperceptible steps. They are unnoticed by the speaker. The rate of linguistic changes is restricted by the communicative function of language. A rapid change would have disturbed or hindered communication between speakers of different generations. It is also important to note that different parts or levels of language develop at different rates. When we compare the state of linguistic units before and after a change we can determine the nature of the change, define its type and direction. In order to understand how the change came about we must also trace the process or mechanism of the change.

A linguistic change begins with synchronic variation. New units spring up alongside the existing language units. They may be similar in meaning but slightly different in form, stylistic connotations, social values, distribution in language space, etc. In the same way in addition to the main meanings, new meanings may arise in the existing words or forms. Both kinds of variations – formal and semantic - supply the raw material for changes. Synchronic variation is to be found in every language at every stage of its history. It is caused by two main factors:

• functional differentiation of language,

• tendencies of historical development.

Synchronic variation reveals the tendencies of historical development and it is produced by those tendencies at the same time. New features appear as instances

of synchronic variation. They represent dynamics in synchrony and arise in conformity with productive historical trends. Variation supplies material for linguistic change and it also provides conditions for its realization.